Sources of Homoeopathic Medicines or Drugs

- K. P. Muzumdar.

Nature has provided everything of necessity to mankind and the genius of man has used every bit of opportunity to exploit this to his benefit. The large resources of vegetable, mineral and animal kingdoms have been tapped by him for the continuous progress of civilization.

In the beginning many discoveries were made by mere accidents, but later on the keen and analytical mind of man started searching far into the depth of nature and its resources.

Man established many virtues of these resources in the field of medicine and used them in various conditions either by empiricism or by experimentation and recorded their utility.

Wars always aroused the ingenuity of mankind and the second world war saw tremendous progress in research in chemistry and allied sciences. More synthetic preparations were developed to replace the natural products. The philosophy of medical science was also developing and scientists were busy in discovering the cause or causative organisms of the diseases and they also succeeded to some extent. Chemotherapeutic agents and antibiotics and steroids were discovered in many cases. The medical ideology kept on changing and with that the medicinal substances.

The universal law `Similia similibus curentur' is the natural law which homoeopathy embraced ever since it was established in 1796 by Hahnemann. Since the principles that governed the cause of disease and its cure have remained the same, the drugs also have not changed and hence there was no change in the sources of medicinal substances : they only increased in number from time to time. More and more provings were undertaken and more medicinal substances, natural and synthetic, were introduced in the Homoeopathic materia medica since 1924. Very recently nearly 130 drugs have been introduced in the homoeopathic materia medica (by O.A. Julian - France) though all of them are not proved on the homoeopathic principles, most of them are introduced on tautopathic and isopathic principles.

VEGETABLE SOURCES

Mother tinctures are prepared from the whole plant or from their appendages depending upon the portion that was used in the `proving' of the medicine. The elders probably decided this on the basis of their medicinal contents available in the various parts of the plant substance. Phytochemistry has advanced very much since then and more work in this line is required to support the data. The pharmacopoeias normally indicate in the monograph the parts used originally in the preparation of mother tincture at the time of their introduction. However following are some examples of drugs from the vegetable kingdom, wherein the plant and their appendages are made use of in the preparation of the mother tincture.

Whole Plant (Including Root)

Acalypha indica; Aconite napellus; Atropa belladonna; Chamomilla; Chelidonium majus; Dulcamara; Euphrasia officinale; Hypericum; Ledum; Pulsatilla, Ruta; Tribulus terrestris - (excluding root); Ocimum sanctum.

Root: Artemisia vulgaris; Calotropis gigantea; Bryonia alba, Cicuta virosa; Ipecacuanha; Rauwolfia serpentina; Senega; Phytolacca.

Stem: Jaborandi; Sabina (with leaves). Modified Stem: (rhizome) - Caulophyllum thalictroides, Dioscorea villosa, Gelsemium; Helleborus niger; Podophyllum peltatum; Sanguinaria canadensis.

Bulb: Allium cepa; Allium sativum; Homeria collina; Aegrotans purpura.

Tuber: Solanum tuberosum aegrotans (tincture of affected tubers); Trillium pendulum.

Corn: Colchicum autumnale.

Leaves: Abrotanum; Abroma augusta; Bryophyllum pinnatum; Cannabis sativa; Digitalis purpura; Tabacum; Rhus tox; Laurocerasus mimosa; Oleander; Crocus sativa.

Inflorescence: Calendula officinalis (with leaves).

Flowers: Cina; Cannabis indica; Cactus grandiflora.

Stigma: Crocus sativa.

Fruits: (Berries)- Agnus castus; Crataegus oxyacantha; Coffea tosta (well roasted berries).

Nut: Aesculus hippocastanum; Fagus/Sylvatica cerifera.

Spores: Lycopodium clavatum.

Pulp: Colocynthis.

Bark Root: Baptisia tinctoria; Berberis vulgaris, Myrica cerifera.

Stem: Cinchona officinalis; Holarrhena antidysenterica

Oil: Oleum cajuputi (oil from leaves); Oleum ricini (oil from seeds).

Resin: Abies nigra.

Gum: Asafoetida (gum resin); Ammoniacum.

Juices: Myristica sebifera (fresh red juice obtained by puncturing the bark); Aloe socotrina (juice of leaves); Opium (gummy juice); Hura braziliensis (milky juice).

A plant or vegetable substances consists of cellulose and lignin which form the basic frame material of the root and lignin which form the basic frame material of the roots, stem, leaves and other parts of the plant. Apart from water which forms the major constituent of the plant it also contains organic and inorganic substances. The medicinal property of the plant is taken as dependent on the composition of these organic and inorganic constituents.

The constituents and their composition depend upon the species of the plant, their habitat, the height at which they grow, the soil on which they thrive and the seasonal variations. Often there is a variation in the composition of these constituents in the different parts of the plant. These constituents reach a peak level in certain parts at a certain time. The pharmacopoeias, therefore, recommend the use of the part accordingly.

A short summary of the constituents commonly found in the plant substance is given below :-

Carbohydrates

These are organic compounds. Apart from the lignins and cellulose which form the framework of the plant structure, carbohydrates are found in vegetables kingdom, combined in glycosides, plant pigments, glycoproteins, gums, pectins, mucilage, galactants, etc. Ascorbic acid or vitamin C is a derivative of carbohydrate xylose.

Carbohydrates are sub-divided into two categories : Sugars and Non-Sugars. Sucrose, lactose, etc. are the sugars. They are sweet and soluble in water, whereas starch, gums, cellulose are non-sugars.

Stereoisomerism is a common phenomenon with carbohydrates especially with sugars. They are characterized by optical activity which is determined by polarimeter.

Glycosides are complex organic plant principles from the combination of hydroxy compounds with sugars. Hydrolytic reactions normally split up the glycosides into their constituent parts. This may be brought about by boiling with dilute mineral acid or with an alkali. They are also hydrolyzed by enzymes, which occur in the same plant but in different cells. During maceration these come in contact and hydrolysis takes place. It is, therefore, necessary to destroy these enzymes before attempting to isolate the glycosides. Many fruits and other parts of the plant contain glycosides. The pigment of flowers is glycosidic in character. Digitoxin (Digitalis) and Strophanthin (Strophanthus) are cardiotonic glycosides, whereas Aloin (Aloe) and Purshianian (Cascara sagarda) are cathartics.

Tannins and Tannic acids

These are widely distributed in the vegetable kingdom. They are found in barks and fruits of many plants, particularly in the species of Rhus, Acacia, Hamamelis, Rose etc.

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are largely derived from plants though a few are found in the living animal body and others result from decomposition of dead animal tissue.

Leacomaines are from the living animal tissue, whereas the ptomaines are from dead animal tissue. A few alkaloids are prepared synthetically. There are a number of synthetic drugs of alkaloidal character which do not occur in nature.

Alkaloids are classified according to their therapeutic properties, chemical structure and source.

Alkaloids are active principles of many plants. A few alkaloids are obtained from cryptogams (flowerless plants) but the majority are derived from phenerogams (flowering plants) and dicotyledons. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, they contain oxygen and nitrogen, which give it alkali-like property. Non-volatile alkaloids are solids and volatile ones are liquids which do not contain oxygen. Most of these alkaloids are physiologically very active, some of them being extremely poisonous. Nearly all alkaloids exhibit optical activity in solution due to one or more asymmetric carbon atoms in the molecule. The alkaloids are precipitated by one or more of the following reagents. The process also helps in identifying some of them :-

a. Mercuric Potassium iodide (Mayer's reagent)

b. b. Potassium Cadmium iodide (Marme's reagent)

c. Potassium Bismuth iodide (Dragendorff's reagent) etc.

Alkaloids are usually white but they form red and yellow salts with sanguinarin and berberin respectively.

Their identification is based on the melting point, specific rotation, crystalline form and solubility. Now-a-days infra-red spectrography is used to identify them.

Opium contains narcotic alkaloids. Twenty-five alkaloids have been isolated in Opium; Cinchona and Quinine from Cinchona bark. Atropine from Atropa belladonna, Strychnine from Nux vomica etc. are a few examples.

Volatile oils

These are found in various plant organs and tissues. They are obtained from any one of the following methods:- (a) Distillation with steam, (b) Distillation per se. (c) Expression Extraction.

Certain flowers like orange flowers and rose must be used fresh or preserved in salt or glycerine before being subjected to extraction for oil. Dry substances such as sandal wood, cinnamon bark should be macerated with water before being subjected to distillation. These are used extensively in perfumery today. Arnica flowers contain 0.14 Percent volatile oil. Mentha piperata contains peppermint oil and Myristica fragrans contains 7 Percent to 16 Percent oxygenated volatile oil. Turpentine oil and Eucalyptus oil are two more examples.

Lipids

These are fat and fat-like substances found in plants and animals. They are grouped together on the basis of their solubility. They are soluble in ether and chloroform and are insoluble in water.

Fixed oils are esters of glycerol and fatty acids. Olive oil is an example. Fixed oils which are solids at ordinary temperature are fats. Lard is an example. Lycopodium spores contain 47 Percent of a fixed oil, which contains lycopodic acid, albumin and carbohydrate.

Plant exudate

It comprises of naturally occurring solid or semi-solid, chemically complex mixtures of vegetable origin and resins. Their properties vary with the seasons, climate and other environmental factors.

Resins

These are natural or induced exudates from plants, solid or semi-solid in nature. They are usually oxidized turpins or volatile oil of plants. When pure, they are transparent, when they contain water they are opaque. Podophyllum yields not less than 5 Percent resin. Ginger contains soft aromatic resin.

Oleoresins

These are natural mixtures of volatile oil and the resin obtained by incising the trunk of a tree. Turpentine and Copaiba are two examples of natural oleoresins.

Gum resin

Natural mixtures of gum and resin are obtained as an exudate from the plants. By incising living rhizome and roots of Ferula Asafoetida Linne about 50 Percent of alcohol soluble extraction can be obtained. It contains about 60 Percent resin, 25 Percent gum and 3.9 Percent volatile oil.

Balsams

These are compounds of resinous substances benzoic or cinnamic acids or their esters. Tolu balsam is a classical example. It contains up to 80 Percent resin, 7 Percent volatile oil and 12-15 Percent free cinnamic and benzoic acid.

Vitamins

Vitamins are normally not synthesized by plants. But there are a few which do : Viz. Alfalfa and Spinach contain Vit.K. Orange and other plants synthesize ascorbic acid at the time of germination and it is concentrated while the plant grows. Wheat germ oil is the richest source of Vit.E. But many do not synthesize vitamins but they have their precursors, such as carotene in carrots, which is a precursor to Vit.A. The plantsterol, ergosterol is found relatively in large amounts in yeast, moulds and fungi and is the precursor of Vit. D2.

Thiamine, Riboflavine and Nicotinic acid are constantly present in a small amount in many fruits and plant cells. They may not be major sources, but a constant intake of these fruits supplies regular requirement of these vitamins.

Continuous research in the field of plant chemistry has revealed that many of the contents can be gainfully utilized in the treatment of diseases. No doubt there is phenomenal growth in the study of synthetic chemistry and antibiotics but still plant source is the most important and foremost in the alkaloids, which even today remain, the main source of medicinally active chemicals to fight the disease.

ANIMAL SOURCES

Just as man has tapped the resources from vegetable source, he has tapped the animal kingdom and their products, to alleviate the disease, by observing their behaviour, discharges, secretions and poisoning effects on human beings.

Classification Name of the animal

Arachnida Tarantula, Mygale, Theridion, Aranea

Orthoptera Blatta orientalis

Coleoptera Cantharis

Hymenoptera Apis, Formica, Vespa

Hemipter Coccus cacti, Climax

Radiata Corallium rubrum, Spongia-medusa, Badiaga

Mollusca Sepia, Murex

Batrachidae Bufo rana

Pisceses Oleum jecoris aselli

Ophidia Lachesis, Naja, Crotalus, Elaps

Mammalia Moschus, Mephitis

All these animals species are used in the preparation of homoeopathic drugs - either the whole of the healthy animal or its secretion (Venom of leeches, dried preputial secretion of the anan gland of wild cat-mephitis, etc.)

CHEMICAL OR MINERAL SOURCES

Our earth contains 98 elements and only two elements are yet unknown. Man has constantly tried to exploit this mineral wealth for his benefit, be it for health, or for commerce or for constructive or for destructive work.

Homoeopathy has derived many minerals for the purpose of medication, either in their pure form or in combinations.

Elements

Aurum met, Argentum met, Cuprum met, etc.

Compounds

Calcarea carb, Ferrum phos, Baryta carb, Ammonia carb, etc.

Acids - (Inorganic)-

Nitric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid, etc. (Organic) - Benzoic acid, Acetic acid, Picric acid, etc.

Before they are taken in for the preparation their impurities as well as level of purity is determined.

Nosodes and Sarcodes

The word `nosode' is derived from `Nosonos' meaning disease. Medicinal substances are prepared from the diseased product or the excretion of the living organism. Psorinum-Itch eruption; Syphilinum-syphilitic poison; Ambra grisea - a diseased product from whale fish; Secale cornutum - a fungus growth which attacks the grain of rye.

As against this Sarcodes are prepared from the secretion of healthy organism: Cholesterin; Insulin - (B cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas); Thyroidinum - (Thyroid gland). They have a great value in homoeopathic preparations. They are deep-acting remedies and have a property to set right the disturbed metabolism. Imponderabilia

X-ray - Absolute alcohol contained in a flint glassed bottle was irradiated by Meyervitz coil Fincke. Griggs used absolute alcohol contained in a shallow dish and exposed it directly to X-ray radiation.

Synthetic

Thymol (methyl-iso-phenol) Sulphanilamide, Histamin hydro- chloricum, Purified chemical Corticotropin, Purified Hormone Cortisone (a purified steroid).

Collection of Drug Substances

Vegetables

The collection of drug substances,particularly for the preparation of homoeopathic mother tinctures, should be done by a qualified botanist having a special knowledge of taxonomy and systemic botany. He should also possess the basic knowledge of the homoeopathic pharmacy.

All vegetable and animal products should be freshly collected. Where the material is the product of a foreign country and has to be imported, it is to be obtained in its natural form or state and proper identification should be carried out before using it in the preparation of the mother tincture.

As regards the plants, the parts which are used in the preparation must be collected at the specific time, as they exhibit their characteristic property during a certain period.

The directions for collection with a few exceptions are given below: Whole Plants

Whenever the term `whole plant' is used it means the whole plant including the roots. Otherwise it is mentioned as without the roots when the roots are not employed in the preparation of the mother tincture. The whole plant is gathered in sunny weather when it is in half flowering and half bud stage. It should be carefully cleaned by shaking and gentle rubbing.

Leaves- When the leaves are used, they should be collected just before or during or the early part of the flowering time. This rule requires modification in case of biennials, since the leaves which first appear in the spring of the second year in this are the best and should be collected as soon as the flowering stem begins to shoot.

Flowers- When the flowers are used they should be collected partly in bud and partly in the blossom and in dry weather.

Stems-When the stems are used they should be collected after the development of leaves.

Seeds and fruits- When the seeds and fruits are used they should be collected when fully ripe.

Young shoots- When young shoots are used they should be collected in the spring when the whole plant is in full vigour.

Bark- When the bark of resinous trees is used it should be collected in the early spring, e.g. about the time of development of leaves and blossoms. Non-resinous bark should be collected from young vigorous trees late in autumn.

Roots- When the roots are used different directions are to be followed, according to the nature of the plant:-

a) Roots of the `Biennials' should be collected in spring.

b) Roots of the `Annuals' should be dug out early in autumn, because they dry after the ripening of the seeds.

c) Roots of `Perennials' should be collected in the second or third year before they develop the woody fibres.

The roots should be cleaned without the use of much water. They should be free from moulds and woody appearance. After the fresh material is collected, it should be processed as quickly as possible to avoid deterioration. It is not always possible to have the material produced near the place of manufacture, in which case it should be packed carefully. It can be kept fresh for hours after plucking if kept in a cold storage. During transport due precautions should be taken to keep it fresh. It can be packed in polythene bags.

In case the plants need drying before their transportation to the place of storage or manufacture, they should be tied in loose bundles and then hung in the shade away from direct sun, rain, etc. Odorous substances should be separately stored.

It is well known that medicinal properties of some of the plants are lost on preservation. Artemisia maritima (Cina) loses its property on prolonged storage. It is, therefore , wise to process the plants at the earliest opportunity.

During Hahnemann's time, science in general and chemistry in particular was not much advanced. Therefore even with the traditional practitioner vegetable sources were quite common. But in the last part of 19th and the beginning of 20th century there was tremendous development in the scientific advancement and the traditional system gradually switched over to chemotherapy (synthetic drug products) and antibiotics.

Homoeopathy can also adapt to this change but then one will have to take up the tremendous organized task of proving these synthetic chemicals. Unfortunately none of these synthetic products are in identity with the complex vegetable products. One will have to add to the materia medica by proving these new products. One cannot substitute the conventional homoeopathic drugs. Hence with whatever advances, these existing products will still remain a backbone of the materia medica for all times to come.

Animals

They must be correctly identified and collected by a zoologist. These animals must be healthy and from good stock. Excretion to be collected should also be from healthy animals.

Chemicals and Minerals

The genuine quality and purity of drugs, metals, minerals and chemicals should be thoroughly tested before incorporating them in the preparation. (This information can be had from Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India).

Nosodes and Sarcodes

These should be obtained from standard serological laboratories which deal only with the manufacture of cultures of these organisms. The methods of preparation are given elsewhere in this book.

PRESERVATION OF HOMOEOPATHIC DRUG SUBSTANCES

As the sole object of the pharmacist is to ensure the efficacy of appropriate drug substances, he must collect them in their fresh and natural state and use them immediately, so that they do not lose their original properties. However, this may not be possible in every case and therefore some useful methods will have to be devised to maintain the farm freshness of plants.

The plants are cleaned without much use of water. Roots should be free from moulds and woody appearance.

When the fresh plant material is collected immediately after preliminary cleansing it should be transferred in vasculums (ordinary botanical boxes) or transferred to a refrigerator or cold storage plant or a dry freezing plant. Due precaution also should be taken while the plants are in transit and while in storage.

It may happen that sometimes there is no alternative left but to preserve the fresh plant for a longer period to avoid deterioration. It has to be treated by tying it in bundles and hanging it in shade, protected from sun, rain, etc. Odorous plants should be kept separately, so that the peculiar odour of one is not transmitted to the others.

After drying them they should be powdered down to different grades of fineness in conformity with the specification mentioned under individual monographs in the Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India. These grades of fineness are coarse, moderately coarse, fine and very fine and are represented by 20 meshes, 40 meshes, 60 meshes and 80 meshes to 2.5 cm. respectively.

It is necessary to adhere to this collection schedule, since the experience of the past has shown that the medicinal activity in a plant at a particular time of the year, season, etc., is at its zenith during that period. The provings also have been done on the same parts procured at the specified time.

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