Liquid Vehicles : HOMOEOPATHIC VEHICLES AND BASES
- Sumit Goel.
CO2
Homoeopathic vehicles used in homoeopathy, which are in the liquid state, are
* Distilled water
* Alcohol
* Glycerin
* Solvent ether
* Simple syrup
* Olive oil
* Almond oil
* Sesame oil
* Chaulmoogra oil
* Coconut oil
* Sandalwood oil
* Lavender oil
* Rosemary oil
DISTILLED WATER
SYNONYM - Purified water; Aqua distillata; Aqua purificata
CHEMICAL SYMBOL - H2O
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 18.015
PREPARATION
To prepare purified water by distillation process, water (1000 volumes) is distilled from a suitable apparatus (like Leibig's apparatus), provided with a glass condenser; collect the first 100 volumes and reject this portion. Then collect 750 volumes and keep the distilled water in glass-stoppered bottles that have been rinsed with steam or very hot water immediately before being filled. The first 100 volumes are discarded to eliminate foreign volatile substances found in ordinary water and only 750 volumes are collected, since the residue in the still contains concentrated dissolved solids.
* Compression distillation
In vapor compression still or Leibig's condenser (small-scale), the feed water is heated in the evaporator to boiling. The vapor produced in the tubes is separated from the entrained distill and in the separator and conveyed to a compresor that compresses the vapour and raises its temperature to approximately 224oF. It then flows to the steam chest where it condenses on the outer surfaces of the tubes containing the distilland; thereby the vapour is condensed and drawn off as a distillate while giving up its heat to bring the distilland in the tubes to the boiling point.
* Purification by Stills
A wide variety of commercially available stills are used to produce distilled water. The end use of the product dictates the size of the still and extent of pretreatment of the water introduced into the system.
In general, a conventional still consists of a boiler (evaporator) containing raw water (distilland); a source of heat to vapourize the water in the evaporator, a space above the level of distilland with condensing surfaces for refluxing the vapour and thereby returning non-volatile impurities to the distilland; a means for eliminating volatile impurities before the hot water vapour is condensed; and a condenser for removing the heat of vapourization, thereby converting the water vapour to a liquid distillate.
Multiple-Effect Stills
The multiple-effect still is designed to conserve energy. In principle, it is simply a series of single-effect stills running at different pressures. A series of upto 7 effects may be used, with the first effect operated at the highest pressure and the last effect at atmospheric pressure. Steam from an external source is used in the first effect to generate steam under pressure from raw water; it is used as the power source to drive the second effect. The steam used to drive the second effect condenses as it gives up its heat of vapourization and forms a distillate. This process continues until the last effect when the steam is at atmospheric pressure and must be condensed in a heat exchanger.
* De-ionization
The major impurities in water are calcium, iron, magnesium, silica and sodium. The cations are usually combined with bicarbonate, sulphate or chloride anions. 'Hard waters' are those that contain calcium and magnesium cations. Bicarbonates are the major impurity in 'alkaline waters'.
Ion exchange (deionization, demineralization) processes remove most of the major impurities in water efficiently and economically.
Ion exchange term indicates the exchange of ions of similar charge between a solution and a solid of highly insoluble nature, in contact with the solution. Cation exchangers (e.g. Zeokarb 225 or Amberlite IR 120 resin) contain acidic mobile ions or functional groups such as the sulphonic (-SO3H), group, the carboxylic (-COOH) group and the phenolic (-OH) group. Anion exchangers (e.g. Amberlite IR 400 or DeAcidite FF or Zeolite FF resin) contain basic functional groups such as the amino (-NH2) group, quaternary ammonium group and halides. In addition, there are some synthetic resins that act as bifunctional exchangers.
Deionized water or demineralized water is water from which all cations and anions of electrolytes have been removed. It is prepared by treatment of water with a cation exchanger in the acid or hydrogen form. All cations of the electrolyte are replaced by hydrogen ions Water is then treated with an anion exchanger in the basic or hydroxide form.
PROPERTIES
* Clear, colourless, tasteless and odourless liquid
* Its density is taken as unity at the temperature of 15o; it has its maximum density at 4o
* Specific gravity: 1.000 at 25oC
* Boiling point: 100oC
* Freezing point: 0oC
* Latent heat of fusion at melting point: 79.72 cal / gm
* Latent heat of vapourization at boiling point: 539.4 cal / gm
* Heat of formation at 25oC: 68.32 Kcal / mole
* Critical temperature: 374.2oC
* Surface tension at 25oC: 71.97 dynes / cm
* Viscosity at 25oC: 8.937 millipoises
* Refractive index nD20: 1.333
* pH: 5.8 - 7.0
* Water is a chemically stable compound; even at 2000oK less than 1 Pecent is dissociated into its elements; Kw for water is 10-14
* Water is a good ionizing solvent for acids, bases and salts Identification:
1. It gives no residue after evaporation
2. It gives no precipitate when treated with barium chloride or silver nitrate or hydrogen sulphide.
Purity of water
The commoner types of impurities present in water from different sources are either of natural origin like minerals, mineral acids, alkalis, organic compounds (volatile or non-volatile) or maybe derived from different human activities, animal and plant wastes, industrial wastes, radioactive minerals and foreign microbial life. Impurities may be soluble or insoluble solids, liquid and gases. Water is purified by distillation, running through ion exchange columns, treated with activated charcoal, filtration through media like cloth, felt, sintered glass, etc., degasification (for removal of carbon dioxide) and reverse osmosis (in which it is forced through a semi-permeable membrane in opposite direction resulting in removal of microbial and high molecular weight compounds).
* Acidity or alkalinity: Boil 100ml in a flask made of boro-silicate glass until volume is reduced to 75ml and cool with precautions to exclude carbon dioxide. To 20ml, add 1 drop of phenol-red solution. If the solution is yellow, it becomes red on adding 0.1ml of 0.1N sodium hydroxide; if red, it becomes yellow on adding 0.1ml of 0.1N hydrochloric acid.
* Copper, iron, lead: To 100ml, add 0.05ml of sodium sulphide solution, the liquid remains clear and colourless.
* Albuminoid ammonia: To 500ml, add 0.2gm of magnesium carbonate and distill 200ml. Reject the distillate, add 2ml of alkaline potassium permanganate solution and distill 100ml. To this distillate, add 4ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution; the colour produced is not deeper than that produced by the addition of 4ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution to a mixture of 100ml of ammonia-free water and 4ml of dilute ammonium chloride solution.
* Ammonia: To 50ml, add 2ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution and view in a Nessler cylinder placed on a white tile; the colour is not more intense than that given by 50ml of ammonia-free water with the addition of 2ml of dilute ammonium chloride solution (Nessler's) when tested under similar conditions.
* Oxidisable matter: Boil 100ml for 10 minutes with 3ml of sulphuric acid and 1ml of 0.01N potassium permanganate; the colour of potassium permanganate is not completely discharged.
* Non-volatile matter: Leaves not more than 0.001 Pecent w/v of residue when evaporated to dryness on a water bath and dried to constant weight at 105o.
HOMOEOPATHIC UTILITY
Its tastelessness, freedom from irritating qualities and lack of pharmacological activity, makes water a unique vehicle in homoeopathy.
* It is used for the preparation of aqueous mother solutions of drug substances that are insoluble in alcohol, according to Class VA and Class VB.
* It may also be a part of the menstrum used to prepare mother tinctures, according to the new method of preparation of mother tinctures.
* It is used to convert solid trituration potency (3C, 6X) into a liquid potency for succussions (4C, 8X).
* It is used to prepare the mother solution for fifty millesimal scale.
* It is a good vehicle for dispensing of homoeopathic medicines and placebo. The only disadvantage of water is that aqueous solutions are unstable and cannot be preserved for a long time.
* It is an ingredient for many external applications, like lotions, glyceroles, preparation of tincture of soap, gargles, mouthwashes, applications for instillation into the eye, like ear drops, eye drops, inhalations, vaginal and urethral injections, preparation of opodeldoes, plasters.
* Water, hot or cold, is used to give fomentation.
* Water is used to prepare different strengths of alcohols.
* Water is used as water for injection.
* For cleansing of pharmaceutical utensils.
STORAGE
Purified water must be filled at once into well-stoppered bottles that are thoroughly cleaned in hot water. Attention should be paid to proper storage of purified water, since the materials of the containers can often contaminate it. Hard glass containers may furnish boron, sodium, silica and traces of lead, arsenic and potassium. Pyrex glass qualifies well. Metal containers are also liable to attack by purified water. Polyvinyl chloride polythene, Teflon and urethane containers are also good. However, a variety of compounds like antioxidants, surfactants and lubricants that are used in the manufacture of plastics may contaminate water, which may prove to be toxic.
ALCOHOL
The term 'Alcohol' is derived from the Arabian term, 'al-kuhul', which means 'finely divided spirit' and was a preparation, used by harem beauties to decorate their eyebrows and eyelashes. Alcohols are derivatives of alkanes in which the hydrogen atom or atoms are replaced by hydroxyl group or groups. They have a general formula CnH2n plus 1OH. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is what is commonly used and hence the term 'alcohol' refers to 'ethanol'.
ALCOHOL FORTIS - STRONG ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Ethanol; Spirit of Wine; Spiritus vini rectificatus
CHEMICAL SYMBOL - C2H5OH
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 46.07
SOURCES AND PREPARATION
It is commonly obtained by distillation of fermented liquids containing carbohydrates or by synthesis. It contains not less than 94.7 Pecentv/v or 92.0 Pecentw/w and not more than 95.2 Pecentv/v or 92.7 Pecentw/w of ethyl alcohol.
Ethanol is prepared by fermentation of certain carbohydrates in the presence of zymase, an enzyme present in yeast cells. Usable carbohydrate-containing materials include molasses, sugarcane, beetroot, grapes, fruit juices, corn, barley, wheat, rice, maize, potato, wood and waste sulphite liquors. The net reaction that occurs when a hexose, glucose for example is fermented to alcohol may be represented as C6H12O6 ---------(>) 2C2H5OH Plus 2CO2 The fermented liquid, containing about 15 Pecent of alcohol is distilled to obtain a distillate containing 94.9 Pecent of ethanol by volume. To produce absolute alcohol, the 95 Pecent product is dehydrated by various processes.
* From molasses - Molasses (black strap) is the mother liquor left after crystallization of cane sugar from cane juice. It contains about 55 Pecent fermentable sugar. It is a thick dark coloured liquid. It is one of the chief sources for the manufacture of alcohol. The manufacture involves the following steps. - Preparation of wash - Molasses is diluted with water to prepare a 10-18 Pecent solution of sugar. A small amount of ammonium sulphate or ammonium phosphate is added to it to improve the quality of fermentation. The pH of the medium is adjusted to 4 or 5 by adding sulphuric acid or lactic acid. It is then warmed at 25o - 30o and yeast ferment added to it. Fermentation starts with the evolution of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide produced pushes out air and automatically creates an anaerobic atmosphere for alcoholic fermentation. The enzymes invertase and zymase present in yeast bring about the decomposition of cane sugar into ethanol. The fermentation reaction being exothermic, the fermentor gets heated and no temperature control is needed. The fermentation is carried out for 50 hours or approximately 2-3 days.
C12H22O11 Plus H2O ---------(>) C6H12O6 Plus C6H12O6
C6H12O6 ---------(>) 2C2H5OH Plus 2CO2
The fermented liquor is 'wash'.
- Distillation of wash - the wash contains 15 Pecent alcohol. It is subjected to fractional distillation. A special type of fractioning column, Coffey's still is used for this purpose. The vapours of almost pure alcohol from the head of the fractioning column are lead to the condenser. The distillate so obtained is known as crude rectified spirit and contains about 95 Pecent v/v or 92 Pecentw/w of ethanol.
* From starchy materials - This consists of the following steps.
- Saccharification - It is the process of converting starch to maltose. Malting: barley is allowed to germinate in dark at 15oC, when enzyme diastase is developed in it. Germination is stopped after a few days by the action of heat; the malt so obtained is extracted with water, containing diastase in solution. Mashing: suitable starchy material is suspended in water and agitated with superheated steam under pressure to get a pasty mass. This suspension of starch is known as 'mash'. Hydrolysis: mash is mixed with malt extract and the temperature maintained between 50 - 60oC. Fermentation starts and under the influence of diastase, starch is hydrolyzed into maltose.
- Alcoholic fermentation - The solution of maltose so obtained is mixed with yeast at 30 - 35oC and kept for 3-4 days. Maltose is converted into glucose by the enzyme maltase contained in the yeast. Glucose is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide by the enzyme zymase contained in yeast. This process obtains a 15 Pecent solution of ethanol. This is subjected to fractional distillation to obtain crude rectified spirit.
* From ethylene - Ethanol may be produced by hydration of ethylene, from natural and coke oven gases and from waste gases of petroleum. Acetylene may also be hydrated catalytically to ethanol.
When ethylene is passed into cold concentrated sulphuric acid, it forms ethyl hydrogen sulphate. It is then diluted with water and heated, when it readily undergoes hydrolysis to give ethanol.
PROPERTIES
* A clear, colourless, mobile, volatile liquid
* Odor characteristic and spirituous; taste burning
* Boils at about 78oC, but volatilizes even at low temperature
* Readily inflammable, burning with a blue smokeless flame
* Freezes at -- 114oC
* Highly hygroscopic
* Miscible with water, forming clear, colourless solutions; lighter than water and miscible with it in all proportions, with evolution of heat and contraction in volume
* Miscible with acetone, ether and chloroform in all proportions
* When pure, it is neutral towards all indicators
Purity of ethyl alcohol
* Identification
- To about 10 ml of a 0.5 Pecent v/v solution in water add 2 ml of a 4 Pecentw/v slution of sodium hydroxide and then slowly add about 4 ml of solution of iodine; the odour of iodoform develops and a yellow precipitate is produced.
- Refractive index at 20o: 1.3637 to 1.3639
- Specific gravity - at 25o: 0.8075 to 0.8104; at 15.6oC: 0.816 (HPUS - Alcohol Fortior contains about 91 Pecent by weight or 94 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol and about 9 Pecent by weight or 6 Pecent by volume of water. Its specific gravity at 60oF or 15.6oC is 0.820)
* Acidity or Alkalinity - 20 ml requires not more than 0.2 ml of N/10 NaOH to give a pink colour with phenolphthalein solution, or not more than 0.1 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid to give a red colour with methyl red solution.
* Aldehyde - To 10 ml add 5 ml of solution of sodium hydroxide, shake and allow to stand for 5 minutes; no yellow colour is produced.
* Ketones, isopropyl alcohol, tert-butyl alcohol - To 1 ml add 3 ml of water and 10 ml of solution of mercuric sulphate and heat in a boiling water bath; no precipitate is produced in 3 minutes.
* Fusel oil and allied impurities - Allow 25 ml to evaporate spontaneously in a porcelain dish protected from dust until surface of the dish is barely moist; no foreign odour is perceptible and on the addition of 1 ml of sulphuric acid no red or brown colour is produced. Fusel oil is a bright yellow liquid from the last runnings in the distillation of crude spirit. It is chiefly iso-amyl alcohol or iso-butyl carbinol with traces of butyl alcohol. Fusel oil is obtained from amino acids Valine and Leucine present in starch.
* Methyl alcohol - To 3 - 4 ml of alcohol, 1 gm of salicylic acid and 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid is added and warmed; absence of characteristic fragrant smell of methyl salicylate (Oil of Wintergreen) indicates absence of methyl alcohol.
* Oily or resinous substances - Dilute 5 ml to 100 ml with water in a cylinder; the solution remains clear when examined against a black background.
* Non-volatile matter - When evaporated and dried at 105o, leaves not more than 0.005 Pecent of residue.
ADVANTAGES
* Commercial preparation of alcohol is cheap and simple, as it is prepared from waste product - 'molasses'.
* Alcohols are good pharmaceutical solvents and dissolve many organic compounds.
* It is edible in small doses.
* Alcohol is not spoilt by long storage.
* Alcohol possesses great extractive properties.
* It is also a great preserver of plant and animal tissues.
DISADVANTAGES
* It is an undisputed fact that alcohol is a potent drug. Ethanol, the intoxicating substance in alcoholic beverages, produces physical and psychological changes. If taken in small quantities, it depresses that part of the brain that controls inhibitions and so the person feels relaxed. In large doses and chronic intake, it produces intoxication and dependence.
* It is a taxable item and has to be procured through excise departments.
* It is highly volatile and inflammable
* It cannot dissolve many inorganic salts directly.
* Ordinary corks are easily discolored if come in contact with alcohol by overfilling the bottle.
PRECAUTION AND STORAGE
* Alcohol should be stored in a cool dark place and in airtight closed container, as it evaporates easily and absorbs moisture from atmosphere. It should be kept in pyrex glass well stoppered bottles. Alkaline bottles should be avoided.
* As alcohol is highly inflammable, it should be kept in a cool place away from fire and provided with fire-control measures.
HOMOEOPATHIC UTILITY
Alcohol is preferably used for its superior solvent and preservative qualities. Alcohol is not inert, nor non-toxic, and is therefore not strictly in harmony with the principle of singleness of medicines. Yet, as there is no other menstruum that will serve the same purpose, the drug-substance held in solution by it, preponderates so largely that the effect of the solvent vehicle is not generally noticed.
If an attenuated dilution, made with alcohol, is added to water or milk sugar, the volatility of alcohol renders it innocuous and imperceptible. The chief advantage is, that it does not alter the chemical, toxic and medicinal properties of drugs; while at the same time it is their most reliable preservative, retaining their active properties for an indefinite time.
It possesses great extracting power for the medicinal properties from crude drugs of plant and animal origin.
* It is added to the juice of plants in fresh state to prevent their deterioration.
* For preparation of mother tinctures (Classes I - IV) due to its property of extracting the active principles from plant and animal drugs.
* For preparation of alcoholic mother solutions (Class VA and VB).
* It is used in increasing strengths for dehydration of animal and plant tissues.
* It works as an antiseptic at strength above 10 Pecent.
* Alcohol is used as a base in external applications - tincture of soap, liniments.
* It is used as a soothing agent as it causes a cooling effect on evaporation.
* It may be diluted to any degree with water to prepare different varieties of dilute alcohols.
Hahnemann used only the pure alcohol, prescribed by the pharmacopoeias of his time, which corresponds with our "strong alcohol". This is the "Spiritus vini rectificatissimus", the preparation of which was described in the Old Saxon pharmacopoeia.
VARIETIES OF ALCOHOL
ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Anhydrous Alcohol
PREPARATION
* Absolute alcohol may be obtained from rectified spirit in the following manner.
Take of Rectified spirit- 1 pint
Carbonate of Potash - 11/2 ounce
Slaked lime - 10 ounces
Put the carbonate of potash and spirit into a stoppered bottle and allow them to remain in contact for two days, frequently shaking the bottle. Expose the slaked lime to a red heat in a covered crucible for half an hour; then remove it from the fire and when it has cooled, immediately put the lime into a flask or retort. Add to it the spirit from which the denser aqueous solution of carbonate of potash, which will have formed a distinct stratum at the bottom of the bottle, has been carefully and completely separated. Attach a condenser to the apparatus and allow it to remain without any external application of heat for 24 hours; then, applying a gentle heat, let the spirit distil until that which has passed over shall measure 11/2 fluid ounce. Reject this and continue the distillation into a fresh receiver until nothing more passes at a temperature of 200o.
* Absolute alcohol may also be prepared by the dehydration of rectified spirit with fresh quick lime (Calcium oxide). Pour rectified spirit (2 - 2.25 liter) into a 3 liter round bottomed flask and 500 gm of calcium oxide that has been freshly ignited in a muffle furnace and allowed to cool in a desiccator. Fit the flask with a double surface condenser carrying a calcium chloride guard tube. Reflux the mixture gently for 6 hours and allow to stand overnight. Reassemble the condenser for downward distillation to prevent carry-over of the calcium oxide in the vapour stream. Distil the ethanol gently discarding the first 20 ml of distillate.
* On a large scale, absolute alcohol may be prepared by distillation of rectified spirit, mixed with little benzene. The first fraction of the distillate contains constant boiling mixture of ethanol, water and benzene (b.p.
- 64.8oC). The second fraction contains constant boiling mixture of ethanol and benzene (b.p. - 68.2oC). The last fraction contains pure anhydrous alcohol (b.p.
- 78.5oC), known as absolute alcohol.
PROPERTIES
* Contains not less than 99.4 Pecentv/v or 99 Pecentw/w and not more than 100 Pecentv/v or 100 Pecentw/w of ethyl alcohol.
* Specific gravity: 0.795
* It is entirely volatile by heat; is not rendered turbid when mixed with water; does not cause anhydrous copper sulphate to assume a blue colour when left in contact with it
* It complies with the requirements given under alcohol (95 Pecent).
UTILITY
* It is used in Stapf process for the purification of sugar of milk.
STORAGE
* It is very necessary to preserve absolute alcohol in well-stoppered bottles, since it attracts water from the air and could therefore be rapidly spoilt by exposure.
HOMOEOPATHIC DISPENSING ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Official Alcohol
PREPARATION
* Dilute 947ml of strong alcohol to 1000ml with purified water.
* It is prepared in a ratio of 1/10 w/w or 1/12.25 v/v by mixing water to strong alcohol.
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States
Dispensing alcohol may be made by adding 1 part by volume of distilled water to 11.75 parts by volume of strong alcohol, or 1 part by weight of distilled water to 9.64 parts by weight of strong alcohol.
PROPERTIES
* Contains 91.4 Pecentv/v (limit 91.0 to 92.0 Pecentv/v) of ethyl alcohol; Specific gravity (20o/20o): 0.8289 to 0.8319
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States
Dispensing alcohol contains 83 Pecent by weight, or 88 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol and 17 Pecent by weight, or 12 Pecent by volume of water. Its specific gravity at 60oF (15.6oC) is 0.840
UTILITY
* Dispensing alcohol is used for making most of the dilutions from tinctures, in Centesimal and Decimal scale, as this degree of strength is more readily absorbed by both cane and milk sugar and is consequently better suited for medicating purposes. Dilute alcohol becomes unsuitable for preparation of potencies by succussion, as solid vehicles like cane sugar (globules) and milk sugar become soluble in the higher water content present in dilute alcohol.
* According to Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India, dispensing alcohol is used in the preparation of potencies of Fifty millesimal scale and conversion of solid triturations into liquid potencies.
HOMOEOPATHIC DILUTE ALCOHOL
PREPARATION
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
Dilute 632ml of strong alcohol to 1000ml with purified water.
* British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
This is made by mixing equal measures of rectified spirit and distilled water. The mixture should have a density of 0.940 and contains about 40 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
* M.Bhattacharya & Co.'s Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Pharmaceutics By adding three parts of distilled water by volume to seven parts of 60 O.P. Rectified spirit by volume. It has a specific gravity of 0.89
* Pharmacopoeia Homoeopathica Polyglotta, edited by Dr. Willmar Schwabe Seven parts of strong alcohol with specific gravity 0.83 are mixed with three parts distilled water. It has a specific gravity 0.89
PROPERTIES
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
* Contains 60 Pecentv/v (limit 59.5 Pecent to 60.5 Pecentv/v) of ethyl alcohol
* Specific gravity (20oC/20oC): 0.9139 to 0.9169
* Refractive index, at 20oC: 1.3617 to 1.3618
UTILITY
* After conversion of solid trituration, 6X potency to 8X in the liquid form, the next higher potency 9X is prepared with dilute alcohol (H.P.I.).
* Dilute alcohol is used to prepare 1X and 1C potencies from the mother tincture prepared according to Old Hahnemannian Method.
* It is used to prepare evaporating lotions.
* It is used for cleansing of utensils
PROOF SPIRIT
It is legally defined as being a spirit, which at a temperature of 51oF shall weigh exactly 12/13th of weight of an equal measure of distilled water. Proof Spirit, or in other words the Rectified Spirit of Proof Strength has,
- Specific gravity, at 60oF: 0.91976
- Contains 57.1 Pecent of ethyl alcohol by volume and 49.28 Pecent of ethyl alcohol by weight.
Spirit of this strength is called 100 Pecent Proof Spirit. So 57.1 Pecent by volume of Spirit is equivalent to 100 Pecent Proof Spirit. This concentration was originally fixed as being the most dilute aqueous alcohol, which when passed on to gunpowder and lit, would fire the powder; if the spirit contained more water, the gunpowder was too wet to fire.
According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, Proof Spirit is made by mixing 5 measures of rectified spirit with 3.2 measures of distilled water. The mixture should then be agitated and allowed to cool to 60oF and a sufficient quantity of distilled water added to increase the bulk to 8 measures. For excise purposes, weaker spirits are termed as 'Under Proof - U.P.' and stronger spirits are termed as 'Over Proof - O.P.'. The strength of alcoholic solutions can be determined by finding the specific gravity by means of a graduated Syke's hydrometer or a specific gravity bottle. The strength of alcohol that corresponds to the observed specific gravity can then be found by reference to alcoholometric tables.
A. Over Proof
i. Spirit of 20o O.P.
Spirit of 20o O.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water will yield 120 volumes of Proof Spirit. According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, this is made by mixing 6 measures of rectified spirit with 2 measures of distilled water. It should have a density of 0.8939 and contains about 61 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
ii. Spirit of 40o O.P.
Spirit of 40o O.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water will yield 140 volumes of Proof Spirit. According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, this is made by mixing 7 measures of rectified spirit with 1 measure of distilled water. It should have a density of 0.8646 and contains about 73 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
B. Under Proof
i. Spirit of 10o U.P.
Spirit of 10o U.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water contain 90 volumes of Proof Spirit.
ii. Spirit of 30o U.P.
Spirit of 30o U.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water contain 70 volumes of Proof Spirit.
CONVERSION OF Pecent CONCENTRATION TO PROOF STRENGTH AND VICE VERSA
20o O.P. = 120 / 1.75 = 68.57 Pecent
40o O.P. = 140 / 1.75 = 80 Pecent
60o O.P. = 160 / 1.75 = 91.42 Pecent
10o U.P. = 90 / 1.75 = 51.4 Pecent
30o U.P. = 70 / 1.75 = 40 Pecent
91.42 Pecent = (91.42 X 1.75) - 100 = 60 i.e. 60 O.P.
70 Pecent = (70 X 1.75) - 100 = 22.5 i.e. 22.5 O.P.
60 Pecent = (60 X 1.75) - 100 = 5 i.e. 5 O.P.
50 Pecent = (50 X 1.75) - 100 = - 12.5 i.e. 12.5 U.P.
40 Pecent = (40 X 1.75) - 100 = - 30 i.e. 30 U.P.
The term proof strength, proof spirit is used so that tax is levied only on the actual quantity of ethyl alcohol contained in any mixture. Therefore it is sometimes necessary for the pharmacist to convert alcohol purchased to proof strength to compute tax refunds or convert proof strengths to percent for compounding purposes.
RECTIFIED SPIRIT (60 O.P.)
Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. means Pure Rectified Spirit containing 160 percent of Proof Spirit
(60 over hundred of Proof Spirit).
- Specific gravity, at 15.26oC: 0.829
- Contains 91.29 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol.
Pure Rectified Spirit of 60 O.P. strength is generally used in India for homoeopathic potentization and dispensing instead of dispensing alcohol. The difference in the specific gravity of dispensing alcohol and Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. is approximately 0.01; Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. is 3.29 Pecent stronger than the official dispensing alcohol. By adding required quantities of distilled water, strong alcohol can be converted into Rectified Spirit 60 O.P., which is 91.29 Pecent by volume; approximately 6 ounces of distilled water will have to be added to each gallon to convert it into Rectified Spirit 60 O.P.
DENATURED ALCOHOL
This is ethyl alcohol to which have been added such denaturing materials as to render the alcohol unfit for use as an intoxicating beverage.
By adding certain specified substances in alcohol, denatured alcohol is obtained. It has been rendered unfit for drinking. For pharmaceutical purposes, industrial methylated spirits may be used. These spirits are denatured by adding wood naphtha.
Ordinary mineralized methylated spirit is a highly denatured spirit and has the following composition -
Spirit : 90 parts by volume
Wood naphtha : 91/2 parts by volume
Crude pyridine : 1/2 part by volume
Mineral naphtha : 3/8 of a gallon per 100 gallons
Methyl violet : not less than 0.025 oz per 100 gallons
The substances added give the spirit an exceedingly disagreeable taste.
GLYCERIN
SYNONYM - 1,2,3-Propanetriol; Glycerol; Glyrol; Osmoglyn
CHEMICAL FORMULA - CH2OH . CHOH . CH2OH or C3H8O3
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 92.09
CHEMICAL NATURE
Glycerin is a trihydric alcohol and contains not less than 98.0 Pecentw/w of C3H5(OH)3. Chemically it is the simplest trihydric alcohol. The two terminal alcohol groups are primary whereas the middle one is secondary. It is the commonest constituent of all animal and vegetable oils and fats.
PREPARATION
* From sugars by fermentation
When beet sugar molasses are fermented in the presence of large amounts of sodium sulphite, about 3 Pecent glycerin is formed.
C6H12O6 -- C3H5(OH)3 Plus CH3CHO Plus+ CO2 glucose glycerin acetaldehyde
* Synthetic process (from propylene)
Large quantities of glycerin are now manufactured from propylene obtained as a by-product during cracking of petroleum. It is chlorinated at 400o to form Allyl chloride, which is converted to Allyl alcohol. Then it is treated with hypochlorous acid (HOCl) when 'chlorhydrin derivative' is produced. Extraction of HCl with soda lime followed by hydrolysis yields glycerin.
* From spent soap lye
Fats and oils are hydrolyzed with NaOH solution (lye) when glycerin and sodium salts of fatty acids are formed. The soap is salted out while glycerin remains in solution known as 'spent lye'. Spent lye contains about 3 - 5 Pecent glycerin, small amount of free alkali, NaCl, dissolved soap, proteinous matter, inorganic salts and colouring matter. Glycerin is recovered from this.
PROPERTIES
* A clear, colourless, syrupy liquid, oily to touch
* Odorless; taste sweet, followed by sensation of warmth
* Hygroscopic; when exposed to moist air, it absorbs water and also such gases as hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide
* Specific gravity: 1.255 to 1.266 at 20oC
* Boiling point: 290oC at 1atm. with decomposition, but can be distilled intact in vacuum.
* Solution is neutral to litmus
* When kept for sometime at low temperature, it may solidify, forming a mass of colorless crystals that do not melt until the temperature reaches 20oC
* Solubility: miscible with water, alcohol, methanol; 1 gm in about 12 ml of ethyl acetate or about 15 ml of acetone; insoluble in chloroform, ether or fixed and volatile oils.
Identification
* When heated with dehydrating agents like 0.5 gm potassium hydrogen sulphate, gives off irritating vapours of acrolein, a pungent smelling unsaturated aldehyde.
* When heated on a borax bead in a Bunsen flame, it gives a green flame.
* A 10.0 Pecent w/v solution is neutral to solution of litmus.
* Refractive index: 1.471 to 1.473 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It is used for the preservation of poisonous animal products and venom of snakes like Lachesis, Elaps, Crotalus, etc.
* It is used for the preparation of glyceroles, lotions and nitroglycerine.
* It is used for preparation of mother tinctures and lower dilutions of certain poisonous products like Apis mellifica, Tarantula, etc.
* It is an oral osmotic agent for reducing intra-ocular pressure. It is used to interrupt acute attacks of glaucoma and lowers intra-ocular pressure prior to ocular surgery. In pure anhydrous form, it is used in the eye to reduce corneal oedema and to facilitate ophthalmoscopic examination.
* It is used in ear discharges as it absorbs the pus easily.
* It is used as an application on superficial ulcers of tongue and mouth.
* As an emollient glycerin is beneficial to chapped lips and hands and dry and rough skin.
* It may be used as a suppository in constipation. For evacuation of the bowels in simple constipation, especially when the faeces are in the sigmoid colon and rectum, it may be introduced, being mixed with olive oil and tepid purified water.
* Glycerin is an excellent solvent, although its range is not as extensive as that of water or alcohol. It dissolves fixed alkalis, a large number of salts, vegetable acids, pepsin, tannin, some active principle of plants, etc. It also dissolves gums, soluble carbohydrates, starch, etc.
* It is useful as a humectant in keeping substances moist, owing to its hygroscopicity.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed container.
SOLVENT ETHER
SYNONYM - Diethyl ether
CHEMICAL FORMULA - C2H5 - O - C2H5 or (C2H5)2O
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 74.12
CHEMICAL NATURE
* It is di-ethyl ether (96 - 98 Pecent), remainder consists of alcohol (about 4 Pecent) and a small proportion of water.
PREPARATION
* Ether may be made by reacting ethyl alcohol with sulphuric acid between a temperature of 130 - 137oC. Ether is also produced from ethylene. It is treated with sulphuric acid to form ethylsulphuric acid, which is decomposed by additional ethanol to form ether, regenerating sulphuric acid. PROPERTIES
* A colourless, transparent, very mobile liquid
* Sweet odor; burning taste
* Highly volatile and inflammable; slowly oxidized by the action of air, moisture and light, with formation of peroxides
* Boiling point: 34.5oC, burns with a white flame
* Specific gravity: 0.713 to 0.716 at 25oC
* Dissolves in about 12 times its volume of water at 25oC with slight contraction of volume; miscible with alcohol, benzene, chloroform, solvent hexane, fixed and volatile oils
* Mixed with an equal volume of water, shaken well and allowed to stand, nine-tenths will separate and float on water undissolved
* It evaporates without residue
UTILITY
* It is used only when alcohol in its varying properties with water cannot extract the drug substance from plant.
* Most of the alkaloids, resins, balsams, and tannic acid are easily dissolved by it. It dissolves bromine and iodine readily, but sparingly dissolves phosphorus and sulphur. It dissolves corrosive sublimate very quickly.
CAUTION
* Ether is highly volatile and inflammable; when mixed with air and ignited, may explode. Hence, it should always be kept away from fire and kept tightly corked. Also open or unopened containers stored for extended periods may develop peroxides that are explosive and shock sensitive. Hence, ether is best preserved in hermetically closed tin cans in a cool place.
SIMPLE SYRUP
SYNONYM
Syrup Simplex ; A concentrated aqueous solution of sucrose is called syrup or simple syrup. If the addition to the syrup is of a medicinal character, the product is medicinal syrup.
SOURCE
* It is a solution of sucrose and purified water. Cane sugar is used as it gives consistency and viscosity to fluids.
PREPARATION
* Heat 450ml of purified water to boiling. Add 550gm of sucrose; continue to heat cautiously with constant stirring until the whole is dissolved. When the syrup attains a temperature of 100oC, filter this through purified cotton or a suitable filter. Rinse the vessel with hot purified water till the final solution admeasures 1000ml. When cold, mix this thoroughly.
UTILITY
* It is a sweet vehicle. Homoeopathic mother tinctures are best dispensed with syrup as the combination masks the peculiar odour and taste of the mother tincture, making it convenient for administration.
* It may also be used as placebo.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed clean neutral glass container. It should not be exposed to undue fluctuations in temperature.
OLIVE OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum olivae
SOURCE
* It is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the ripe fruits of Olea europea (family - Oleaceae).
PREPARATION
* Freshly collected ripe olives are crushed in a mill without breaking the putamen and then moderately pressing the pulpy mass. This produces the highest grade oil known as 'virgin oil'. The mass in the press then is mixed with water and again expressed with greater pressure. Any oil remaining in the press cake is finally extracted with carbon disulphide.
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow oil with a greenish tint.
* Odor slight, but not rancid; Taste bland, characteristic.
* At lower temperatures, it may be solid or partly solid.
* Almost insoluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether and chloroform.
* Specific gravity: 0.910 to 0.913 at 20oC
CONSTITUENTS
* Olein, glyceride of oleic acid (70 Pecent); Palmitin, a solid oil composed of palmitic acid and glycerol; Linolein, a glyceride of linoleic acid; Arachin.
UTILITY
* It is used for preparing liniments and plasters.
* It is used for smoothing effect on superficial ulcers and burns.
* It is rubbed, mixed with cod-liver oil, over the skin of patients suffering from rickets and marasmus.
* It renders the skin softer, smoother and more flexible.
* It may be mixed with poultices to prevent their sticking to the skin.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed containers, as it loses color and becomes rancid, if exposed to air and heat.
ALMOND OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum amygdalae expressum
SOURCE
* Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained from the kernels of seeds of Prunus amygdalus. (family - Rosaceae).
PREPARATION
* The oil is obtained by pressure, without the application of heat; by maceration with water and subsequent distillation with steam.
CONSTITUENTS
* It contains not less than 80 Pecent benzaldehyde and also contains olein with some Linolein, but no stearin.
PROPERTIES
* A pale yellow, non-drying oil
* Odor slight and characteristic
* Taste bland and nutty
* Slightly soluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether and with chloroform
* Specific gravity: 0.910 to 0.915 at 20oC
UTILITY
* Externally, almond oil is a demulcent and emollient and being a bland oil makes it a good base for the preparation of liniment in place of olive oil.
* It is a soothing agent for chapped hands, excoriation and irritable skin diseases.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed containers.
SESAME OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum sesami; Gingelly oil; Benne oil; Teel oil
SOURCE
* It is a refined fixed oil obtained by expression from seeds of Sesamum indicum (family - Pedaliaceae). The oil is expressed at ordinary temperature.
CONSTITUENTS
* Olein (75 Pecent); Glycerides, 43 Pecent each of linoleic acid and oleic acid; Sesamin, a lignan derivative; Sesamol, a phenolic substance; Sesamolin; Vitamin A, Vitamin E; Solid fats; stearin, palmitin.
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow colored oil
* Faint odour; bland taste
* Slightly soluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether, with chloroform and with light petroleum
* Specific gravity: 0.916 to 0.919 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It may be used instead of olive oil in the preparation of liniment.
* It is used in the preparation of hair oil.
STORAGE
* It should be stored in well-filled airtight containers in a cool place protected from light.
CHAULMOOGRA OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum chaulmoograe
SOURCE
* Chaulmoogra oil is the fatty fixed oil expressed from the fresh ripe seeds of Hydnocarpus kurzii or Hydnocarpus wightiana (family - Flacourtiaceae). The oil is expressed at room temperature.
CONSTITUENTS
* It is a mixture of glycerides of hydnocarpic acid (45 Pecent), chaulmoogric acid (20 Pecent), gorlic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid.
PROPERTIES
* Yellowish or brownish yellow oil; at 10oC it becomes a whitish solid
* Characteristic odor of rancid butter
* Taste acrid
* Sparingly soluble in alcohol, soluble in benzene, in chloroform and in solvent ether
UTILITY
* The three fatty acids possess a specific toxicity for Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium tuberculosis and are hence effective in the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis, especially in the early cases.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in a tight well-closed container in a cool place protected from light.
COCONUT OIL
SYNONYM - Copra oil
SOURCE
* The fixed oil is obtained by expression from the kernels of the seeds of Cocos nucifera (family - Palmae).
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow to colourless liquid between 28 to 30oC; semi-solid at 20oC; and a hard brittle crystalline solid below 15oC
* Odorless and tasteless or has a faint odour and taste characteristic of coconut
* Melting point: 23oC
* Specific gravity: 0.918 to 0.923
* Readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide; insoluble in water
CONSTITUENTS
* It consists of triglycerides of lauric and myristic acids with a small quantity of caproic, caprylic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids.
UTILITY
* It is an important base for medicated hair oil.
CAUTION
* It must not be used if it has become rancid.
SANDALWOOD OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum santali
SOURCE
* Sandalwood oil is the volatile oil obtained from the dried heartwood of Santalum album (family - Santalaceae). The volatile oil is contained in all the elements of the wood.
CONSTITUENTS - It contains about 90 Pecent of sesquiterpene alcohols - santalol and an aldehyde santalal.
PROPERTIES
* Thick, pale yellow or nearly colourless volatile oil
* Strong aromatic odor
* Pungent aromatic taste
* Readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform
* Specific gravity: 0.973 to 0.985 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It is mixed with other oils and applied externally.
* It is sometimes used as an ingredient in soaps.
STORAGE - It should be kept in well-closed containers in a cool place, protected from light.
LAVENDER OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum lavendulae
SOURCE
* Lavender oil is the volatile oil obtained by distillation from the fresh flowering tops of Lavendula officinalis (family - Labiatae).
CONSTITUENTS
* Linalol, an alcohol and its acetic ester, Lynalyl acetate.
* Pinene, Limonene, Geraniol.
PROPERTIES
* Colorless, pale yellow or yellowish green liquid
* Taste pungent, slightly bitter
* Miscible with absolute alcohol and 90 Pecent alcohol, sparingly soluble in 60 Pecent alcohol
* Specific gravity: 0.875 to 0.888 at 25oC
UTILITY
* It can be applied on superficial ulcers without alcohol.
* It is used with alcohol for soothing effect in headache.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in a well-closed container, in a cool place, protected from light.
ROSEMARY OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum rosmarini
SOURCE
* Rosemary oil is a volatile oil prepared from the fresh flowering tops or leafy twigs of Rosmarinus officinalis (family - Labiatae) by the process of steam distillation.
CONSTITUENTS
* It contains not less than 2 Pecentw/w of ester, bornyl acetate and not less than 2 Pecent w/w free alcohol, borneol. It also contains camphor, cineole, pinene and camphene.
PROPERTIES
* Colorless or pale yellow oil
* Odor characteristic of rosemary; taste camphoraceous
* Slightly soluble in alcohol
* Specific gravity: 0.894 to 0.912
UTILITY
* It is a component of liniment.
* It is commonly used in the form of hair oil.
STORAGE
* It is stored in well-closed containers, in a cool place, protected from light.
SELF ASSESSMENT
* Discuss preparation, purification, properties and homoeopathic utility of distilled water.
* Discuss standardization of distilled water.
* Discuss preparation, properties and homoeopathic utility of strong alcohol.
* Discuss preparation, properties and utility of absolute alcohol.
* Discuss homoeopathic dispensing alcohol.
* Discuss homoeopathic dilute alcohol.
* What is Proof Spirit? Discuss Rectified Spirit 60 O.P.
* Discuss standardization of strong alcohol.
QUIZ 1. Zeokarb 225 is (a) Cation exchanger (b) Anion exchanger (c) Disinfectant (d) Impurity in Distilled water
2. Water is used as a vehicle in (a) Class VIII (b) Class VII (c) Class VI (d) Class V
3. Dispensing alcohol contains (a) 60 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (b) 91.4 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (c) 94.7 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (d) 99.4 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol
4. In Stapf's process, for purification of sugar of milk, the variety of alcohol used is (a) Absolute alcohol (b) Strong alcohol (c) Dispensing alcohol (d) Dilute alcohol
5. 91.42 Pecent alcohol concentration is equal to (a) 60 U.P.
(b) 60 O.P.
(c) 30 U.P.
(d) 30 O.P.
6. For the preservation of poisonous animal products and venom of snakes, the vehicle used is (a) Distilled water (b) Strong alcohol (c) Glycerin (d) Solvent ether
7. For preparation of liniments, vehicle used is (a) Olive oil (b) Almond oil (c) Sesame oil (d) Chaulmoogra oil
8. A fixed oil prepared from the kernels of seeds of Prunus amygdalus is (a) Sesame oil (b) Sandalwood oil (c) Almond oil (d) Olive oil
9. Deionization process is used for the purification of (a) Strong alcohol (b) Distilled water (c) Olive oil (d) Glycerin
10. Fusel oil is a common impurity present in (a) Alcohol (b) Distilled water (c) Olive oil (d) Almond oil
ANSWERS: 1 (a); 2 (d); 3 (b); 4 (a); 5 (b); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (c); 9 (b); 10 (a).
CO2
Homoeopathic vehicles used in homoeopathy, which are in the liquid state, are
* Distilled water
* Alcohol
* Glycerin
* Solvent ether
* Simple syrup
* Olive oil
* Almond oil
* Sesame oil
* Chaulmoogra oil
* Coconut oil
* Sandalwood oil
* Lavender oil
* Rosemary oil
DISTILLED WATER
SYNONYM - Purified water; Aqua distillata; Aqua purificata
CHEMICAL SYMBOL - H2O
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 18.015
PREPARATION
To prepare purified water by distillation process, water (1000 volumes) is distilled from a suitable apparatus (like Leibig's apparatus), provided with a glass condenser; collect the first 100 volumes and reject this portion. Then collect 750 volumes and keep the distilled water in glass-stoppered bottles that have been rinsed with steam or very hot water immediately before being filled. The first 100 volumes are discarded to eliminate foreign volatile substances found in ordinary water and only 750 volumes are collected, since the residue in the still contains concentrated dissolved solids.
* Compression distillation
In vapor compression still or Leibig's condenser (small-scale), the feed water is heated in the evaporator to boiling. The vapor produced in the tubes is separated from the entrained distill and in the separator and conveyed to a compresor that compresses the vapour and raises its temperature to approximately 224oF. It then flows to the steam chest where it condenses on the outer surfaces of the tubes containing the distilland; thereby the vapour is condensed and drawn off as a distillate while giving up its heat to bring the distilland in the tubes to the boiling point.
* Purification by Stills
A wide variety of commercially available stills are used to produce distilled water. The end use of the product dictates the size of the still and extent of pretreatment of the water introduced into the system.
In general, a conventional still consists of a boiler (evaporator) containing raw water (distilland); a source of heat to vapourize the water in the evaporator, a space above the level of distilland with condensing surfaces for refluxing the vapour and thereby returning non-volatile impurities to the distilland; a means for eliminating volatile impurities before the hot water vapour is condensed; and a condenser for removing the heat of vapourization, thereby converting the water vapour to a liquid distillate.
Multiple-Effect Stills
The multiple-effect still is designed to conserve energy. In principle, it is simply a series of single-effect stills running at different pressures. A series of upto 7 effects may be used, with the first effect operated at the highest pressure and the last effect at atmospheric pressure. Steam from an external source is used in the first effect to generate steam under pressure from raw water; it is used as the power source to drive the second effect. The steam used to drive the second effect condenses as it gives up its heat of vapourization and forms a distillate. This process continues until the last effect when the steam is at atmospheric pressure and must be condensed in a heat exchanger.
* De-ionization
The major impurities in water are calcium, iron, magnesium, silica and sodium. The cations are usually combined with bicarbonate, sulphate or chloride anions. 'Hard waters' are those that contain calcium and magnesium cations. Bicarbonates are the major impurity in 'alkaline waters'.
Ion exchange (deionization, demineralization) processes remove most of the major impurities in water efficiently and economically.
Ion exchange term indicates the exchange of ions of similar charge between a solution and a solid of highly insoluble nature, in contact with the solution. Cation exchangers (e.g. Zeokarb 225 or Amberlite IR 120 resin) contain acidic mobile ions or functional groups such as the sulphonic (-SO3H), group, the carboxylic (-COOH) group and the phenolic (-OH) group. Anion exchangers (e.g. Amberlite IR 400 or DeAcidite FF or Zeolite FF resin) contain basic functional groups such as the amino (-NH2) group, quaternary ammonium group and halides. In addition, there are some synthetic resins that act as bifunctional exchangers.
Deionized water or demineralized water is water from which all cations and anions of electrolytes have been removed. It is prepared by treatment of water with a cation exchanger in the acid or hydrogen form. All cations of the electrolyte are replaced by hydrogen ions Water is then treated with an anion exchanger in the basic or hydroxide form.
PROPERTIES
* Clear, colourless, tasteless and odourless liquid
* Its density is taken as unity at the temperature of 15o; it has its maximum density at 4o
* Specific gravity: 1.000 at 25oC
* Boiling point: 100oC
* Freezing point: 0oC
* Latent heat of fusion at melting point: 79.72 cal / gm
* Latent heat of vapourization at boiling point: 539.4 cal / gm
* Heat of formation at 25oC: 68.32 Kcal / mole
* Critical temperature: 374.2oC
* Surface tension at 25oC: 71.97 dynes / cm
* Viscosity at 25oC: 8.937 millipoises
* Refractive index nD20: 1.333
* pH: 5.8 - 7.0
* Water is a chemically stable compound; even at 2000oK less than 1 Pecent is dissociated into its elements; Kw for water is 10-14
* Water is a good ionizing solvent for acids, bases and salts Identification:
1. It gives no residue after evaporation
2. It gives no precipitate when treated with barium chloride or silver nitrate or hydrogen sulphide.
Purity of water
The commoner types of impurities present in water from different sources are either of natural origin like minerals, mineral acids, alkalis, organic compounds (volatile or non-volatile) or maybe derived from different human activities, animal and plant wastes, industrial wastes, radioactive minerals and foreign microbial life. Impurities may be soluble or insoluble solids, liquid and gases. Water is purified by distillation, running through ion exchange columns, treated with activated charcoal, filtration through media like cloth, felt, sintered glass, etc., degasification (for removal of carbon dioxide) and reverse osmosis (in which it is forced through a semi-permeable membrane in opposite direction resulting in removal of microbial and high molecular weight compounds).
* Acidity or alkalinity: Boil 100ml in a flask made of boro-silicate glass until volume is reduced to 75ml and cool with precautions to exclude carbon dioxide. To 20ml, add 1 drop of phenol-red solution. If the solution is yellow, it becomes red on adding 0.1ml of 0.1N sodium hydroxide; if red, it becomes yellow on adding 0.1ml of 0.1N hydrochloric acid.
* Copper, iron, lead: To 100ml, add 0.05ml of sodium sulphide solution, the liquid remains clear and colourless.
* Albuminoid ammonia: To 500ml, add 0.2gm of magnesium carbonate and distill 200ml. Reject the distillate, add 2ml of alkaline potassium permanganate solution and distill 100ml. To this distillate, add 4ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution; the colour produced is not deeper than that produced by the addition of 4ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution to a mixture of 100ml of ammonia-free water and 4ml of dilute ammonium chloride solution.
* Ammonia: To 50ml, add 2ml of alkaline potassium mercuri-iodide solution and view in a Nessler cylinder placed on a white tile; the colour is not more intense than that given by 50ml of ammonia-free water with the addition of 2ml of dilute ammonium chloride solution (Nessler's) when tested under similar conditions.
* Oxidisable matter: Boil 100ml for 10 minutes with 3ml of sulphuric acid and 1ml of 0.01N potassium permanganate; the colour of potassium permanganate is not completely discharged.
* Non-volatile matter: Leaves not more than 0.001 Pecent w/v of residue when evaporated to dryness on a water bath and dried to constant weight at 105o.
HOMOEOPATHIC UTILITY
Its tastelessness, freedom from irritating qualities and lack of pharmacological activity, makes water a unique vehicle in homoeopathy.
* It is used for the preparation of aqueous mother solutions of drug substances that are insoluble in alcohol, according to Class VA and Class VB.
* It may also be a part of the menstrum used to prepare mother tinctures, according to the new method of preparation of mother tinctures.
* It is used to convert solid trituration potency (3C, 6X) into a liquid potency for succussions (4C, 8X).
* It is used to prepare the mother solution for fifty millesimal scale.
* It is a good vehicle for dispensing of homoeopathic medicines and placebo. The only disadvantage of water is that aqueous solutions are unstable and cannot be preserved for a long time.
* It is an ingredient for many external applications, like lotions, glyceroles, preparation of tincture of soap, gargles, mouthwashes, applications for instillation into the eye, like ear drops, eye drops, inhalations, vaginal and urethral injections, preparation of opodeldoes, plasters.
* Water, hot or cold, is used to give fomentation.
* Water is used to prepare different strengths of alcohols.
* Water is used as water for injection.
* For cleansing of pharmaceutical utensils.
STORAGE
Purified water must be filled at once into well-stoppered bottles that are thoroughly cleaned in hot water. Attention should be paid to proper storage of purified water, since the materials of the containers can often contaminate it. Hard glass containers may furnish boron, sodium, silica and traces of lead, arsenic and potassium. Pyrex glass qualifies well. Metal containers are also liable to attack by purified water. Polyvinyl chloride polythene, Teflon and urethane containers are also good. However, a variety of compounds like antioxidants, surfactants and lubricants that are used in the manufacture of plastics may contaminate water, which may prove to be toxic.
ALCOHOL
The term 'Alcohol' is derived from the Arabian term, 'al-kuhul', which means 'finely divided spirit' and was a preparation, used by harem beauties to decorate their eyebrows and eyelashes. Alcohols are derivatives of alkanes in which the hydrogen atom or atoms are replaced by hydroxyl group or groups. They have a general formula CnH2n plus 1OH. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is what is commonly used and hence the term 'alcohol' refers to 'ethanol'.
ALCOHOL FORTIS - STRONG ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Ethanol; Spirit of Wine; Spiritus vini rectificatus
CHEMICAL SYMBOL - C2H5OH
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 46.07
SOURCES AND PREPARATION
It is commonly obtained by distillation of fermented liquids containing carbohydrates or by synthesis. It contains not less than 94.7 Pecentv/v or 92.0 Pecentw/w and not more than 95.2 Pecentv/v or 92.7 Pecentw/w of ethyl alcohol.
Ethanol is prepared by fermentation of certain carbohydrates in the presence of zymase, an enzyme present in yeast cells. Usable carbohydrate-containing materials include molasses, sugarcane, beetroot, grapes, fruit juices, corn, barley, wheat, rice, maize, potato, wood and waste sulphite liquors. The net reaction that occurs when a hexose, glucose for example is fermented to alcohol may be represented as C6H12O6 ---------(>) 2C2H5OH Plus 2CO2 The fermented liquid, containing about 15 Pecent of alcohol is distilled to obtain a distillate containing 94.9 Pecent of ethanol by volume. To produce absolute alcohol, the 95 Pecent product is dehydrated by various processes.
* From molasses - Molasses (black strap) is the mother liquor left after crystallization of cane sugar from cane juice. It contains about 55 Pecent fermentable sugar. It is a thick dark coloured liquid. It is one of the chief sources for the manufacture of alcohol. The manufacture involves the following steps. - Preparation of wash - Molasses is diluted with water to prepare a 10-18 Pecent solution of sugar. A small amount of ammonium sulphate or ammonium phosphate is added to it to improve the quality of fermentation. The pH of the medium is adjusted to 4 or 5 by adding sulphuric acid or lactic acid. It is then warmed at 25o - 30o and yeast ferment added to it. Fermentation starts with the evolution of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide produced pushes out air and automatically creates an anaerobic atmosphere for alcoholic fermentation. The enzymes invertase and zymase present in yeast bring about the decomposition of cane sugar into ethanol. The fermentation reaction being exothermic, the fermentor gets heated and no temperature control is needed. The fermentation is carried out for 50 hours or approximately 2-3 days.
C12H22O11 Plus H2O ---------(>) C6H12O6 Plus C6H12O6
C6H12O6 ---------(>) 2C2H5OH Plus 2CO2
The fermented liquor is 'wash'.
- Distillation of wash - the wash contains 15 Pecent alcohol. It is subjected to fractional distillation. A special type of fractioning column, Coffey's still is used for this purpose. The vapours of almost pure alcohol from the head of the fractioning column are lead to the condenser. The distillate so obtained is known as crude rectified spirit and contains about 95 Pecent v/v or 92 Pecentw/w of ethanol.
* From starchy materials - This consists of the following steps.
- Saccharification - It is the process of converting starch to maltose. Malting: barley is allowed to germinate in dark at 15oC, when enzyme diastase is developed in it. Germination is stopped after a few days by the action of heat; the malt so obtained is extracted with water, containing diastase in solution. Mashing: suitable starchy material is suspended in water and agitated with superheated steam under pressure to get a pasty mass. This suspension of starch is known as 'mash'. Hydrolysis: mash is mixed with malt extract and the temperature maintained between 50 - 60oC. Fermentation starts and under the influence of diastase, starch is hydrolyzed into maltose.
- Alcoholic fermentation - The solution of maltose so obtained is mixed with yeast at 30 - 35oC and kept for 3-4 days. Maltose is converted into glucose by the enzyme maltase contained in the yeast. Glucose is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide by the enzyme zymase contained in yeast. This process obtains a 15 Pecent solution of ethanol. This is subjected to fractional distillation to obtain crude rectified spirit.
* From ethylene - Ethanol may be produced by hydration of ethylene, from natural and coke oven gases and from waste gases of petroleum. Acetylene may also be hydrated catalytically to ethanol.
When ethylene is passed into cold concentrated sulphuric acid, it forms ethyl hydrogen sulphate. It is then diluted with water and heated, when it readily undergoes hydrolysis to give ethanol.
PROPERTIES
* A clear, colourless, mobile, volatile liquid
* Odor characteristic and spirituous; taste burning
* Boils at about 78oC, but volatilizes even at low temperature
* Readily inflammable, burning with a blue smokeless flame
* Freezes at -- 114oC
* Highly hygroscopic
* Miscible with water, forming clear, colourless solutions; lighter than water and miscible with it in all proportions, with evolution of heat and contraction in volume
* Miscible with acetone, ether and chloroform in all proportions
* When pure, it is neutral towards all indicators
Purity of ethyl alcohol
* Identification
- To about 10 ml of a 0.5 Pecent v/v solution in water add 2 ml of a 4 Pecentw/v slution of sodium hydroxide and then slowly add about 4 ml of solution of iodine; the odour of iodoform develops and a yellow precipitate is produced.
- Refractive index at 20o: 1.3637 to 1.3639
- Specific gravity - at 25o: 0.8075 to 0.8104; at 15.6oC: 0.816 (HPUS - Alcohol Fortior contains about 91 Pecent by weight or 94 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol and about 9 Pecent by weight or 6 Pecent by volume of water. Its specific gravity at 60oF or 15.6oC is 0.820)
* Acidity or Alkalinity - 20 ml requires not more than 0.2 ml of N/10 NaOH to give a pink colour with phenolphthalein solution, or not more than 0.1 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid to give a red colour with methyl red solution.
* Aldehyde - To 10 ml add 5 ml of solution of sodium hydroxide, shake and allow to stand for 5 minutes; no yellow colour is produced.
* Ketones, isopropyl alcohol, tert-butyl alcohol - To 1 ml add 3 ml of water and 10 ml of solution of mercuric sulphate and heat in a boiling water bath; no precipitate is produced in 3 minutes.
* Fusel oil and allied impurities - Allow 25 ml to evaporate spontaneously in a porcelain dish protected from dust until surface of the dish is barely moist; no foreign odour is perceptible and on the addition of 1 ml of sulphuric acid no red or brown colour is produced. Fusel oil is a bright yellow liquid from the last runnings in the distillation of crude spirit. It is chiefly iso-amyl alcohol or iso-butyl carbinol with traces of butyl alcohol. Fusel oil is obtained from amino acids Valine and Leucine present in starch.
* Methyl alcohol - To 3 - 4 ml of alcohol, 1 gm of salicylic acid and 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid is added and warmed; absence of characteristic fragrant smell of methyl salicylate (Oil of Wintergreen) indicates absence of methyl alcohol.
* Oily or resinous substances - Dilute 5 ml to 100 ml with water in a cylinder; the solution remains clear when examined against a black background.
* Non-volatile matter - When evaporated and dried at 105o, leaves not more than 0.005 Pecent of residue.
ADVANTAGES
* Commercial preparation of alcohol is cheap and simple, as it is prepared from waste product - 'molasses'.
* Alcohols are good pharmaceutical solvents and dissolve many organic compounds.
* It is edible in small doses.
* Alcohol is not spoilt by long storage.
* Alcohol possesses great extractive properties.
* It is also a great preserver of plant and animal tissues.
DISADVANTAGES
* It is an undisputed fact that alcohol is a potent drug. Ethanol, the intoxicating substance in alcoholic beverages, produces physical and psychological changes. If taken in small quantities, it depresses that part of the brain that controls inhibitions and so the person feels relaxed. In large doses and chronic intake, it produces intoxication and dependence.
* It is a taxable item and has to be procured through excise departments.
* It is highly volatile and inflammable
* It cannot dissolve many inorganic salts directly.
* Ordinary corks are easily discolored if come in contact with alcohol by overfilling the bottle.
PRECAUTION AND STORAGE
* Alcohol should be stored in a cool dark place and in airtight closed container, as it evaporates easily and absorbs moisture from atmosphere. It should be kept in pyrex glass well stoppered bottles. Alkaline bottles should be avoided.
* As alcohol is highly inflammable, it should be kept in a cool place away from fire and provided with fire-control measures.
HOMOEOPATHIC UTILITY
Alcohol is preferably used for its superior solvent and preservative qualities. Alcohol is not inert, nor non-toxic, and is therefore not strictly in harmony with the principle of singleness of medicines. Yet, as there is no other menstruum that will serve the same purpose, the drug-substance held in solution by it, preponderates so largely that the effect of the solvent vehicle is not generally noticed.
If an attenuated dilution, made with alcohol, is added to water or milk sugar, the volatility of alcohol renders it innocuous and imperceptible. The chief advantage is, that it does not alter the chemical, toxic and medicinal properties of drugs; while at the same time it is their most reliable preservative, retaining their active properties for an indefinite time.
It possesses great extracting power for the medicinal properties from crude drugs of plant and animal origin.
* It is added to the juice of plants in fresh state to prevent their deterioration.
* For preparation of mother tinctures (Classes I - IV) due to its property of extracting the active principles from plant and animal drugs.
* For preparation of alcoholic mother solutions (Class VA and VB).
* It is used in increasing strengths for dehydration of animal and plant tissues.
* It works as an antiseptic at strength above 10 Pecent.
* Alcohol is used as a base in external applications - tincture of soap, liniments.
* It is used as a soothing agent as it causes a cooling effect on evaporation.
* It may be diluted to any degree with water to prepare different varieties of dilute alcohols.
Hahnemann used only the pure alcohol, prescribed by the pharmacopoeias of his time, which corresponds with our "strong alcohol". This is the "Spiritus vini rectificatissimus", the preparation of which was described in the Old Saxon pharmacopoeia.
VARIETIES OF ALCOHOL
ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Anhydrous Alcohol
PREPARATION
* Absolute alcohol may be obtained from rectified spirit in the following manner.
Take of Rectified spirit- 1 pint
Carbonate of Potash - 11/2 ounce
Slaked lime - 10 ounces
Put the carbonate of potash and spirit into a stoppered bottle and allow them to remain in contact for two days, frequently shaking the bottle. Expose the slaked lime to a red heat in a covered crucible for half an hour; then remove it from the fire and when it has cooled, immediately put the lime into a flask or retort. Add to it the spirit from which the denser aqueous solution of carbonate of potash, which will have formed a distinct stratum at the bottom of the bottle, has been carefully and completely separated. Attach a condenser to the apparatus and allow it to remain without any external application of heat for 24 hours; then, applying a gentle heat, let the spirit distil until that which has passed over shall measure 11/2 fluid ounce. Reject this and continue the distillation into a fresh receiver until nothing more passes at a temperature of 200o.
* Absolute alcohol may also be prepared by the dehydration of rectified spirit with fresh quick lime (Calcium oxide). Pour rectified spirit (2 - 2.25 liter) into a 3 liter round bottomed flask and 500 gm of calcium oxide that has been freshly ignited in a muffle furnace and allowed to cool in a desiccator. Fit the flask with a double surface condenser carrying a calcium chloride guard tube. Reflux the mixture gently for 6 hours and allow to stand overnight. Reassemble the condenser for downward distillation to prevent carry-over of the calcium oxide in the vapour stream. Distil the ethanol gently discarding the first 20 ml of distillate.
* On a large scale, absolute alcohol may be prepared by distillation of rectified spirit, mixed with little benzene. The first fraction of the distillate contains constant boiling mixture of ethanol, water and benzene (b.p.
- 64.8oC). The second fraction contains constant boiling mixture of ethanol and benzene (b.p. - 68.2oC). The last fraction contains pure anhydrous alcohol (b.p.
- 78.5oC), known as absolute alcohol.
PROPERTIES
* Contains not less than 99.4 Pecentv/v or 99 Pecentw/w and not more than 100 Pecentv/v or 100 Pecentw/w of ethyl alcohol.
* Specific gravity: 0.795
* It is entirely volatile by heat; is not rendered turbid when mixed with water; does not cause anhydrous copper sulphate to assume a blue colour when left in contact with it
* It complies with the requirements given under alcohol (95 Pecent).
UTILITY
* It is used in Stapf process for the purification of sugar of milk.
STORAGE
* It is very necessary to preserve absolute alcohol in well-stoppered bottles, since it attracts water from the air and could therefore be rapidly spoilt by exposure.
HOMOEOPATHIC DISPENSING ALCOHOL
SYNONYM - Official Alcohol
PREPARATION
* Dilute 947ml of strong alcohol to 1000ml with purified water.
* It is prepared in a ratio of 1/10 w/w or 1/12.25 v/v by mixing water to strong alcohol.
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States
Dispensing alcohol may be made by adding 1 part by volume of distilled water to 11.75 parts by volume of strong alcohol, or 1 part by weight of distilled water to 9.64 parts by weight of strong alcohol.
PROPERTIES
* Contains 91.4 Pecentv/v (limit 91.0 to 92.0 Pecentv/v) of ethyl alcohol; Specific gravity (20o/20o): 0.8289 to 0.8319
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States
Dispensing alcohol contains 83 Pecent by weight, or 88 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol and 17 Pecent by weight, or 12 Pecent by volume of water. Its specific gravity at 60oF (15.6oC) is 0.840
UTILITY
* Dispensing alcohol is used for making most of the dilutions from tinctures, in Centesimal and Decimal scale, as this degree of strength is more readily absorbed by both cane and milk sugar and is consequently better suited for medicating purposes. Dilute alcohol becomes unsuitable for preparation of potencies by succussion, as solid vehicles like cane sugar (globules) and milk sugar become soluble in the higher water content present in dilute alcohol.
* According to Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India, dispensing alcohol is used in the preparation of potencies of Fifty millesimal scale and conversion of solid triturations into liquid potencies.
HOMOEOPATHIC DILUTE ALCOHOL
PREPARATION
* Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
Dilute 632ml of strong alcohol to 1000ml with purified water.
* British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
This is made by mixing equal measures of rectified spirit and distilled water. The mixture should have a density of 0.940 and contains about 40 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
* M.Bhattacharya & Co.'s Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Pharmaceutics By adding three parts of distilled water by volume to seven parts of 60 O.P. Rectified spirit by volume. It has a specific gravity of 0.89
* Pharmacopoeia Homoeopathica Polyglotta, edited by Dr. Willmar Schwabe Seven parts of strong alcohol with specific gravity 0.83 are mixed with three parts distilled water. It has a specific gravity 0.89
PROPERTIES
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
* Contains 60 Pecentv/v (limit 59.5 Pecent to 60.5 Pecentv/v) of ethyl alcohol
* Specific gravity (20oC/20oC): 0.9139 to 0.9169
* Refractive index, at 20oC: 1.3617 to 1.3618
UTILITY
* After conversion of solid trituration, 6X potency to 8X in the liquid form, the next higher potency 9X is prepared with dilute alcohol (H.P.I.).
* Dilute alcohol is used to prepare 1X and 1C potencies from the mother tincture prepared according to Old Hahnemannian Method.
* It is used to prepare evaporating lotions.
* It is used for cleansing of utensils
PROOF SPIRIT
It is legally defined as being a spirit, which at a temperature of 51oF shall weigh exactly 12/13th of weight of an equal measure of distilled water. Proof Spirit, or in other words the Rectified Spirit of Proof Strength has,
- Specific gravity, at 60oF: 0.91976
- Contains 57.1 Pecent of ethyl alcohol by volume and 49.28 Pecent of ethyl alcohol by weight.
Spirit of this strength is called 100 Pecent Proof Spirit. So 57.1 Pecent by volume of Spirit is equivalent to 100 Pecent Proof Spirit. This concentration was originally fixed as being the most dilute aqueous alcohol, which when passed on to gunpowder and lit, would fire the powder; if the spirit contained more water, the gunpowder was too wet to fire.
According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, Proof Spirit is made by mixing 5 measures of rectified spirit with 3.2 measures of distilled water. The mixture should then be agitated and allowed to cool to 60oF and a sufficient quantity of distilled water added to increase the bulk to 8 measures. For excise purposes, weaker spirits are termed as 'Under Proof - U.P.' and stronger spirits are termed as 'Over Proof - O.P.'. The strength of alcoholic solutions can be determined by finding the specific gravity by means of a graduated Syke's hydrometer or a specific gravity bottle. The strength of alcohol that corresponds to the observed specific gravity can then be found by reference to alcoholometric tables.
A. Over Proof
i. Spirit of 20o O.P.
Spirit of 20o O.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water will yield 120 volumes of Proof Spirit. According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, this is made by mixing 6 measures of rectified spirit with 2 measures of distilled water. It should have a density of 0.8939 and contains about 61 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
ii. Spirit of 40o O.P.
Spirit of 40o O.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water will yield 140 volumes of Proof Spirit. According to British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, this is made by mixing 7 measures of rectified spirit with 1 measure of distilled water. It should have a density of 0.8646 and contains about 73 Pecent by weight of absolute alcohol.
B. Under Proof
i. Spirit of 10o U.P.
Spirit of 10o U.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water contain 90 volumes of Proof Spirit.
ii. Spirit of 30o U.P.
Spirit of 30o U.P. means that 100 volumes of spirit with water contain 70 volumes of Proof Spirit.
CONVERSION OF Pecent CONCENTRATION TO PROOF STRENGTH AND VICE VERSA
20o O.P. = 120 / 1.75 = 68.57 Pecent
40o O.P. = 140 / 1.75 = 80 Pecent
60o O.P. = 160 / 1.75 = 91.42 Pecent
10o U.P. = 90 / 1.75 = 51.4 Pecent
30o U.P. = 70 / 1.75 = 40 Pecent
91.42 Pecent = (91.42 X 1.75) - 100 = 60 i.e. 60 O.P.
70 Pecent = (70 X 1.75) - 100 = 22.5 i.e. 22.5 O.P.
60 Pecent = (60 X 1.75) - 100 = 5 i.e. 5 O.P.
50 Pecent = (50 X 1.75) - 100 = - 12.5 i.e. 12.5 U.P.
40 Pecent = (40 X 1.75) - 100 = - 30 i.e. 30 U.P.
The term proof strength, proof spirit is used so that tax is levied only on the actual quantity of ethyl alcohol contained in any mixture. Therefore it is sometimes necessary for the pharmacist to convert alcohol purchased to proof strength to compute tax refunds or convert proof strengths to percent for compounding purposes.
RECTIFIED SPIRIT (60 O.P.)
Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. means Pure Rectified Spirit containing 160 percent of Proof Spirit
(60 over hundred of Proof Spirit).
- Specific gravity, at 15.26oC: 0.829
- Contains 91.29 Pecent by volume of ethyl alcohol.
Pure Rectified Spirit of 60 O.P. strength is generally used in India for homoeopathic potentization and dispensing instead of dispensing alcohol. The difference in the specific gravity of dispensing alcohol and Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. is approximately 0.01; Rectified Spirit 60 O.P. is 3.29 Pecent stronger than the official dispensing alcohol. By adding required quantities of distilled water, strong alcohol can be converted into Rectified Spirit 60 O.P., which is 91.29 Pecent by volume; approximately 6 ounces of distilled water will have to be added to each gallon to convert it into Rectified Spirit 60 O.P.
DENATURED ALCOHOL
This is ethyl alcohol to which have been added such denaturing materials as to render the alcohol unfit for use as an intoxicating beverage.
By adding certain specified substances in alcohol, denatured alcohol is obtained. It has been rendered unfit for drinking. For pharmaceutical purposes, industrial methylated spirits may be used. These spirits are denatured by adding wood naphtha.
Ordinary mineralized methylated spirit is a highly denatured spirit and has the following composition -
Spirit : 90 parts by volume
Wood naphtha : 91/2 parts by volume
Crude pyridine : 1/2 part by volume
Mineral naphtha : 3/8 of a gallon per 100 gallons
Methyl violet : not less than 0.025 oz per 100 gallons
The substances added give the spirit an exceedingly disagreeable taste.
GLYCERIN
SYNONYM - 1,2,3-Propanetriol; Glycerol; Glyrol; Osmoglyn
CHEMICAL FORMULA - CH2OH . CHOH . CH2OH or C3H8O3
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 92.09
CHEMICAL NATURE
Glycerin is a trihydric alcohol and contains not less than 98.0 Pecentw/w of C3H5(OH)3. Chemically it is the simplest trihydric alcohol. The two terminal alcohol groups are primary whereas the middle one is secondary. It is the commonest constituent of all animal and vegetable oils and fats.
PREPARATION
* From sugars by fermentation
When beet sugar molasses are fermented in the presence of large amounts of sodium sulphite, about 3 Pecent glycerin is formed.
C6H12O6 -- C3H5(OH)3 Plus CH3CHO Plus+ CO2 glucose glycerin acetaldehyde
* Synthetic process (from propylene)
Large quantities of glycerin are now manufactured from propylene obtained as a by-product during cracking of petroleum. It is chlorinated at 400o to form Allyl chloride, which is converted to Allyl alcohol. Then it is treated with hypochlorous acid (HOCl) when 'chlorhydrin derivative' is produced. Extraction of HCl with soda lime followed by hydrolysis yields glycerin.
* From spent soap lye
Fats and oils are hydrolyzed with NaOH solution (lye) when glycerin and sodium salts of fatty acids are formed. The soap is salted out while glycerin remains in solution known as 'spent lye'. Spent lye contains about 3 - 5 Pecent glycerin, small amount of free alkali, NaCl, dissolved soap, proteinous matter, inorganic salts and colouring matter. Glycerin is recovered from this.
PROPERTIES
* A clear, colourless, syrupy liquid, oily to touch
* Odorless; taste sweet, followed by sensation of warmth
* Hygroscopic; when exposed to moist air, it absorbs water and also such gases as hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide
* Specific gravity: 1.255 to 1.266 at 20oC
* Boiling point: 290oC at 1atm. with decomposition, but can be distilled intact in vacuum.
* Solution is neutral to litmus
* When kept for sometime at low temperature, it may solidify, forming a mass of colorless crystals that do not melt until the temperature reaches 20oC
* Solubility: miscible with water, alcohol, methanol; 1 gm in about 12 ml of ethyl acetate or about 15 ml of acetone; insoluble in chloroform, ether or fixed and volatile oils.
Identification
* When heated with dehydrating agents like 0.5 gm potassium hydrogen sulphate, gives off irritating vapours of acrolein, a pungent smelling unsaturated aldehyde.
* When heated on a borax bead in a Bunsen flame, it gives a green flame.
* A 10.0 Pecent w/v solution is neutral to solution of litmus.
* Refractive index: 1.471 to 1.473 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It is used for the preservation of poisonous animal products and venom of snakes like Lachesis, Elaps, Crotalus, etc.
* It is used for the preparation of glyceroles, lotions and nitroglycerine.
* It is used for preparation of mother tinctures and lower dilutions of certain poisonous products like Apis mellifica, Tarantula, etc.
* It is an oral osmotic agent for reducing intra-ocular pressure. It is used to interrupt acute attacks of glaucoma and lowers intra-ocular pressure prior to ocular surgery. In pure anhydrous form, it is used in the eye to reduce corneal oedema and to facilitate ophthalmoscopic examination.
* It is used in ear discharges as it absorbs the pus easily.
* It is used as an application on superficial ulcers of tongue and mouth.
* As an emollient glycerin is beneficial to chapped lips and hands and dry and rough skin.
* It may be used as a suppository in constipation. For evacuation of the bowels in simple constipation, especially when the faeces are in the sigmoid colon and rectum, it may be introduced, being mixed with olive oil and tepid purified water.
* Glycerin is an excellent solvent, although its range is not as extensive as that of water or alcohol. It dissolves fixed alkalis, a large number of salts, vegetable acids, pepsin, tannin, some active principle of plants, etc. It also dissolves gums, soluble carbohydrates, starch, etc.
* It is useful as a humectant in keeping substances moist, owing to its hygroscopicity.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed container.
SOLVENT ETHER
SYNONYM - Diethyl ether
CHEMICAL FORMULA - C2H5 - O - C2H5 or (C2H5)2O
MOLECULAR WEIGHT - 74.12
CHEMICAL NATURE
* It is di-ethyl ether (96 - 98 Pecent), remainder consists of alcohol (about 4 Pecent) and a small proportion of water.
PREPARATION
* Ether may be made by reacting ethyl alcohol with sulphuric acid between a temperature of 130 - 137oC. Ether is also produced from ethylene. It is treated with sulphuric acid to form ethylsulphuric acid, which is decomposed by additional ethanol to form ether, regenerating sulphuric acid. PROPERTIES
* A colourless, transparent, very mobile liquid
* Sweet odor; burning taste
* Highly volatile and inflammable; slowly oxidized by the action of air, moisture and light, with formation of peroxides
* Boiling point: 34.5oC, burns with a white flame
* Specific gravity: 0.713 to 0.716 at 25oC
* Dissolves in about 12 times its volume of water at 25oC with slight contraction of volume; miscible with alcohol, benzene, chloroform, solvent hexane, fixed and volatile oils
* Mixed with an equal volume of water, shaken well and allowed to stand, nine-tenths will separate and float on water undissolved
* It evaporates without residue
UTILITY
* It is used only when alcohol in its varying properties with water cannot extract the drug substance from plant.
* Most of the alkaloids, resins, balsams, and tannic acid are easily dissolved by it. It dissolves bromine and iodine readily, but sparingly dissolves phosphorus and sulphur. It dissolves corrosive sublimate very quickly.
CAUTION
* Ether is highly volatile and inflammable; when mixed with air and ignited, may explode. Hence, it should always be kept away from fire and kept tightly corked. Also open or unopened containers stored for extended periods may develop peroxides that are explosive and shock sensitive. Hence, ether is best preserved in hermetically closed tin cans in a cool place.
SIMPLE SYRUP
SYNONYM
Syrup Simplex ; A concentrated aqueous solution of sucrose is called syrup or simple syrup. If the addition to the syrup is of a medicinal character, the product is medicinal syrup.
SOURCE
* It is a solution of sucrose and purified water. Cane sugar is used as it gives consistency and viscosity to fluids.
PREPARATION
* Heat 450ml of purified water to boiling. Add 550gm of sucrose; continue to heat cautiously with constant stirring until the whole is dissolved. When the syrup attains a temperature of 100oC, filter this through purified cotton or a suitable filter. Rinse the vessel with hot purified water till the final solution admeasures 1000ml. When cold, mix this thoroughly.
UTILITY
* It is a sweet vehicle. Homoeopathic mother tinctures are best dispensed with syrup as the combination masks the peculiar odour and taste of the mother tincture, making it convenient for administration.
* It may also be used as placebo.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed clean neutral glass container. It should not be exposed to undue fluctuations in temperature.
OLIVE OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum olivae
SOURCE
* It is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the ripe fruits of Olea europea (family - Oleaceae).
PREPARATION
* Freshly collected ripe olives are crushed in a mill without breaking the putamen and then moderately pressing the pulpy mass. This produces the highest grade oil known as 'virgin oil'. The mass in the press then is mixed with water and again expressed with greater pressure. Any oil remaining in the press cake is finally extracted with carbon disulphide.
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow oil with a greenish tint.
* Odor slight, but not rancid; Taste bland, characteristic.
* At lower temperatures, it may be solid or partly solid.
* Almost insoluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether and chloroform.
* Specific gravity: 0.910 to 0.913 at 20oC
CONSTITUENTS
* Olein, glyceride of oleic acid (70 Pecent); Palmitin, a solid oil composed of palmitic acid and glycerol; Linolein, a glyceride of linoleic acid; Arachin.
UTILITY
* It is used for preparing liniments and plasters.
* It is used for smoothing effect on superficial ulcers and burns.
* It is rubbed, mixed with cod-liver oil, over the skin of patients suffering from rickets and marasmus.
* It renders the skin softer, smoother and more flexible.
* It may be mixed with poultices to prevent their sticking to the skin.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed containers, as it loses color and becomes rancid, if exposed to air and heat.
ALMOND OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum amygdalae expressum
SOURCE
* Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained from the kernels of seeds of Prunus amygdalus. (family - Rosaceae).
PREPARATION
* The oil is obtained by pressure, without the application of heat; by maceration with water and subsequent distillation with steam.
CONSTITUENTS
* It contains not less than 80 Pecent benzaldehyde and also contains olein with some Linolein, but no stearin.
PROPERTIES
* A pale yellow, non-drying oil
* Odor slight and characteristic
* Taste bland and nutty
* Slightly soluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether and with chloroform
* Specific gravity: 0.910 to 0.915 at 20oC
UTILITY
* Externally, almond oil is a demulcent and emollient and being a bland oil makes it a good base for the preparation of liniment in place of olive oil.
* It is a soothing agent for chapped hands, excoriation and irritable skin diseases.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in well-closed containers.
SESAME OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum sesami; Gingelly oil; Benne oil; Teel oil
SOURCE
* It is a refined fixed oil obtained by expression from seeds of Sesamum indicum (family - Pedaliaceae). The oil is expressed at ordinary temperature.
CONSTITUENTS
* Olein (75 Pecent); Glycerides, 43 Pecent each of linoleic acid and oleic acid; Sesamin, a lignan derivative; Sesamol, a phenolic substance; Sesamolin; Vitamin A, Vitamin E; Solid fats; stearin, palmitin.
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow colored oil
* Faint odour; bland taste
* Slightly soluble in alcohol, miscible with solvent ether, with chloroform and with light petroleum
* Specific gravity: 0.916 to 0.919 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It may be used instead of olive oil in the preparation of liniment.
* It is used in the preparation of hair oil.
STORAGE
* It should be stored in well-filled airtight containers in a cool place protected from light.
CHAULMOOGRA OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum chaulmoograe
SOURCE
* Chaulmoogra oil is the fatty fixed oil expressed from the fresh ripe seeds of Hydnocarpus kurzii or Hydnocarpus wightiana (family - Flacourtiaceae). The oil is expressed at room temperature.
CONSTITUENTS
* It is a mixture of glycerides of hydnocarpic acid (45 Pecent), chaulmoogric acid (20 Pecent), gorlic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid.
PROPERTIES
* Yellowish or brownish yellow oil; at 10oC it becomes a whitish solid
* Characteristic odor of rancid butter
* Taste acrid
* Sparingly soluble in alcohol, soluble in benzene, in chloroform and in solvent ether
UTILITY
* The three fatty acids possess a specific toxicity for Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium tuberculosis and are hence effective in the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis, especially in the early cases.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in a tight well-closed container in a cool place protected from light.
COCONUT OIL
SYNONYM - Copra oil
SOURCE
* The fixed oil is obtained by expression from the kernels of the seeds of Cocos nucifera (family - Palmae).
PROPERTIES
* Pale yellow to colourless liquid between 28 to 30oC; semi-solid at 20oC; and a hard brittle crystalline solid below 15oC
* Odorless and tasteless or has a faint odour and taste characteristic of coconut
* Melting point: 23oC
* Specific gravity: 0.918 to 0.923
* Readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide; insoluble in water
CONSTITUENTS
* It consists of triglycerides of lauric and myristic acids with a small quantity of caproic, caprylic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids.
UTILITY
* It is an important base for medicated hair oil.
CAUTION
* It must not be used if it has become rancid.
SANDALWOOD OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum santali
SOURCE
* Sandalwood oil is the volatile oil obtained from the dried heartwood of Santalum album (family - Santalaceae). The volatile oil is contained in all the elements of the wood.
CONSTITUENTS - It contains about 90 Pecent of sesquiterpene alcohols - santalol and an aldehyde santalal.
PROPERTIES
* Thick, pale yellow or nearly colourless volatile oil
* Strong aromatic odor
* Pungent aromatic taste
* Readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform
* Specific gravity: 0.973 to 0.985 at 20oC
UTILITY
* It is mixed with other oils and applied externally.
* It is sometimes used as an ingredient in soaps.
STORAGE - It should be kept in well-closed containers in a cool place, protected from light.
LAVENDER OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum lavendulae
SOURCE
* Lavender oil is the volatile oil obtained by distillation from the fresh flowering tops of Lavendula officinalis (family - Labiatae).
CONSTITUENTS
* Linalol, an alcohol and its acetic ester, Lynalyl acetate.
* Pinene, Limonene, Geraniol.
PROPERTIES
* Colorless, pale yellow or yellowish green liquid
* Taste pungent, slightly bitter
* Miscible with absolute alcohol and 90 Pecent alcohol, sparingly soluble in 60 Pecent alcohol
* Specific gravity: 0.875 to 0.888 at 25oC
UTILITY
* It can be applied on superficial ulcers without alcohol.
* It is used with alcohol for soothing effect in headache.
STORAGE
* It should be kept in a well-closed container, in a cool place, protected from light.
ROSEMARY OIL
SYNONYM - Oleum rosmarini
SOURCE
* Rosemary oil is a volatile oil prepared from the fresh flowering tops or leafy twigs of Rosmarinus officinalis (family - Labiatae) by the process of steam distillation.
CONSTITUENTS
* It contains not less than 2 Pecentw/w of ester, bornyl acetate and not less than 2 Pecent w/w free alcohol, borneol. It also contains camphor, cineole, pinene and camphene.
PROPERTIES
* Colorless or pale yellow oil
* Odor characteristic of rosemary; taste camphoraceous
* Slightly soluble in alcohol
* Specific gravity: 0.894 to 0.912
UTILITY
* It is a component of liniment.
* It is commonly used in the form of hair oil.
STORAGE
* It is stored in well-closed containers, in a cool place, protected from light.
SELF ASSESSMENT
* Discuss preparation, purification, properties and homoeopathic utility of distilled water.
* Discuss standardization of distilled water.
* Discuss preparation, properties and homoeopathic utility of strong alcohol.
* Discuss preparation, properties and utility of absolute alcohol.
* Discuss homoeopathic dispensing alcohol.
* Discuss homoeopathic dilute alcohol.
* What is Proof Spirit? Discuss Rectified Spirit 60 O.P.
* Discuss standardization of strong alcohol.
QUIZ 1. Zeokarb 225 is (a) Cation exchanger (b) Anion exchanger (c) Disinfectant (d) Impurity in Distilled water
2. Water is used as a vehicle in (a) Class VIII (b) Class VII (c) Class VI (d) Class V
3. Dispensing alcohol contains (a) 60 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (b) 91.4 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (c) 94.7 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol (d) 99.4 Pecent v/v of ethyl alcohol
4. In Stapf's process, for purification of sugar of milk, the variety of alcohol used is (a) Absolute alcohol (b) Strong alcohol (c) Dispensing alcohol (d) Dilute alcohol
5. 91.42 Pecent alcohol concentration is equal to (a) 60 U.P.
(b) 60 O.P.
(c) 30 U.P.
(d) 30 O.P.
6. For the preservation of poisonous animal products and venom of snakes, the vehicle used is (a) Distilled water (b) Strong alcohol (c) Glycerin (d) Solvent ether
7. For preparation of liniments, vehicle used is (a) Olive oil (b) Almond oil (c) Sesame oil (d) Chaulmoogra oil
8. A fixed oil prepared from the kernels of seeds of Prunus amygdalus is (a) Sesame oil (b) Sandalwood oil (c) Almond oil (d) Olive oil
9. Deionization process is used for the purification of (a) Strong alcohol (b) Distilled water (c) Olive oil (d) Glycerin
10. Fusel oil is a common impurity present in (a) Alcohol (b) Distilled water (c) Olive oil (d) Almond oil
ANSWERS: 1 (a); 2 (d); 3 (b); 4 (a); 5 (b); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (c); 9 (b); 10 (a).
found your site on del.icio.us today and really liked it.. i bookmarked it and will be back to check it out some more later
ReplyDeleteYour blog are impressive to each other.I read your blog its very good and friendly, Help ful for all.
ReplyDeleteColeus Forshkolii Manufacturers
Sesamin Extract Manufacturers