Bromium
-VERMEULEN Frans
Brom.
If the world, in the near future, administers to its diplomats, to its highest officials, to its legislators, to its people the proper endocrines, especially anterior pituitary, and inhibit the adrenal cortex a little bit, there may be no more wars.
[Samuel Wyllis Bandler]
Signs
Bromine.
CLASSIFICATION Bromine is a member of the halogen group of elements [group 17 of the periodic table, formerly group VIIa], along with fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and astatine. It is obtained from natural brines from wells in Michigan and Arkansas. Little bromine is extracted today from seawater, which contains only about 85 ppm. The element was discovered in 1826 by Antoine Balard.
PROPERTIES Bromine is the only liquid non-metallic element. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, volatilising readily at room temperature to a red vapour with a disagreeable suffocating odour [its name comes from Gr. bromos, stench]. It has a very irritating effect on the eyes and throat. Bromine is less active than chlorine but more so than iodine. It unites readily with many elements and has a bleaching action. Produces painful sores when spilled on the skin.
USES Bromine is used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizers, and inorganic bromides for photography. 1 Large quantities are used to make 1,2-dibromoethane [ethylene dibromide] as a gasoline additive. This compound removes lead additives after the combustion of gasoline, preventing the lead in these additives from forming deposits in the engine. Instead, the lead combines with the bromine to form lead bromide, a volatile gas, which leaves the engine through the exhaust system. Among the halogens bromine is the only element which is a fluid under ordinary circumstances; chlorine is a yellow-green gas, iodine a bluish-black solid, fluorine a pale yellow gas, and astatine an artificially obtained, radioactive solid. Bromine corrodes all metals, with the exception of platina, nickel and lead.
EFFECTS Overexposure to bromine vapours may lead to dizziness, headache, lachrymation, epistaxis, coughing, oppression of chest, pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and measle-like eruptions.
SOURCES Considerable amounts of bromine occur in such plants as Fucus vesiculosus [kelp], Capsicum annuum [paprika], Urtica dioica [stinging nettle], Bertholletia excelsa [Brazil nut], Taraxacum officinale [dandelion], Artemisia vulgaris [mugwort], Brassica [cabbage], and Allium cepa [onion]. Sea animals contain bromine in their tissues. Gasteropod molluscs of the genus Murex, or rather the purple dye they contain [used by the Romans for the robes of dignitaries], are particularly rich in it.
PHYSIOLOGY "Although bromine is one of the most abundant and widespread of the recognized trace elements it has not been conclusively shown to perform any essential function in plants, micro-organisms or animals. However, it can replace chloride to support growth of some algae and in chicks it can partially replace chloride. Bromine at trace mineral levels can cause a small significant growth response in chicks and mice fed excessive iodine to produce growth retardation. However, diets deficient in bromine did not cause any reduction of growth in animals and adding bromine later to such diets did not give rise to increased growth rates. Low blood serum concentrations of bromide in patients receiving haemodialysis have been reported and these levels have been associated with insomnia in these patients. In a double blind trial on haemodialysis patients, quality of sleep improved markedly in those given bromide but not in those receiving chloride. All animal tissues contain between 50 and 100 times more bromine than iodine except in the thyroid where the reverse is true. The bromine levels of soft tissues are affected by illness: e.g. they are elevated in heart disease induced by damage or by uraemia."2
MEDICINE Medicinal bromine compounds fall in a wide variety of therapeutic categories: analgesic; anti-inflammatory; expectorant [e.g. Bisolvon]; anticoagulant; sedative, hypnotic; antiparkinsonian; antihistaminic; anthelmintic; antitussive; antiemetic; antipsychotic [Bromperidol, the bromine analogue of haloperidol]; vasodilator. Other compounds are in use as herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, and insecticides. Two bromine compounds are developed to serve as chemical war gas.
BROMIDES Bromides, mainly potassium bromide and sodium bromide, has been prescribed for decennia as sedatives, soporifics, and anticonvulsants. The use as anticonvulsants originates from Sir Charles Locock, the physician to Queen Victoria, who, in 1857, argued that most cases of epilepsy were due to masturbation, and since high doses of bromide were believed to reduce sexual activity, Locock used it successfully to treat several patients. Bromides have now been largely replaced by drugs with less side-effects. Large doses of the bromides can cause central nervous system depression and mental deterioration. Chronic bromide intoxication - called bromism - is characterized by violent delirium [occasionally], psychotic behaviour, confusion, drowsiness, headache, acneform eruption, seborrhoea, slurred speech, cardiac depression, foul breath, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, gastric pains, and muscular weakness [ataxia; paralysis]. The treatment of chronic bromism is reported to be easy: "table salt [sodium chloride] is administered in large quantities, and the salt helps the urinary excretion of bromide, which is replaced in the body by chloride as a normal consequence of kidney function."3 According to Leeser, bromine represents the high point in the narcotic effect of the halogen series. Blumgarten describes the action of bromides thus: "About 15 to 20 minutes after an average dose of one of the bromides is taken, the patient complains of dull headache, he feels tired and weak, and does not care to exert himself, either mentally or physically. When he moves about, the movements are slow and languid. He perceives objects about him, though not as clearly as usual, but he manifests no interest in them. He speaks slowly and hesitatingly, in a monotonous tone of voice. He does not express his thoughts clearly; these are slow and confused, and his reasoning and memory are poor. Very often the patient becomes drowsy. The pulse is somewhat slower and weaker, and the breathing is somewhat slower. If the patient is nervous and excitable, he becomes calm and quiet. If he has tremors or convulsions, these are lessened or prevented from recurring. ... The bromides lessen the activity of the spinal cord. The reflex action of the body is therefore lessened. The patient does not then respond readily to external stimuli applied to the skin or mucous membranes. For example, when the conjunctiva of the eye is touched, winking results very slowly. When the pharynx is touched, vomiting is not produced so easily. The bromides also lessen the sexual reflexes. 4
BROMISM The symptoms of bromism may appear gradually or suddenly. The following symptoms are characteristic:"[1] Skin eruptions [due to the excretion of the drug through the skin]. These consist principally of groups of pimples on the face [acne]; frequently small abscesses form in the skin. At other times, there are reddish spots scattered over the skin, and the skin may be very pale. [2] Loss of appetite, salty taste in the mouth, bad breath and disturbed digestion. [3] Constipation. [4] Drowsiness. [5] Stupid, dull expression on the face. [6] Depressed spirits, even melancholia. [7] The eyes look heavy and dull. [8] The patient manifests no interest in his surroundings. [9] Slow, uncertain gait. [10] Slow, stammering speech, often words are forgotten and mispronounced. [11] Very poor memory, even recent events are forgotten. [12] Slow pulse. [13] Lessened reflexes [touching the conjunctiva of the eye does not cause winking, etc.]."5
EXPERIMENTS "That the depression of the brain centres is not the sole phase of bromide action is perhaps most clearly shown by the self-investigation of Schabelitz using sodium bromide in large doses. The trial continued over a two-month period. Very soon, after five grams, appeared an irritable frame of mind, a type of intoxication, with some confusion and uncertain gait. With continuous introduction of bromine great desire for undertaking work and a cheerful frame of mind alternating with lassitude and ill-humour. On the seventh day of taking bromides the variation in disposition ceased and an euphoric frame of mind remained. To inattentiveness and forgetfulness there were added joking, the urge to speak, pugnacity, unrestrained and non-critical attitude, a submanic state with many light and colour manifestations, auditory delusions, disturbances of speech and language, cramp from writing, disturbance of convergence, ear noises, disturbances of equilibrium, mislaying of objects, inattention to clothing. Recollections from youth are very animated, while recent impressions are unrecalled. 'As epileptics tend to do, I could not simply name a picture but had to form a judgement about it. The disposition was rosy, I made the most beautiful plans for the future and was irritated if anyone contradicted me.' On the twentieth day of bromides there appeared a striking motor unrest. With the cessation of bromides and the addition of salt the disposition changed like a flash. Two days after the discontinuance of the bromides, there suddenly appeared marked delusions in the sense of reality on the basis of a marked feeling of inferiority.""6
BROMATES Bromates [salts of bromic acid] are used in permanent wave neutralizers. Potassium bromate is used as a maturing agent and conditioner in bread. It effects the nitrogenous parts [gluten] in the wheat flour by helping the proteins to retain the carbon dioxide gas generated by the yeast during fermentation. The result is a softer, lighter loaf. It is added to the wort in beer making to reduce excess losses of carbohydrate from the germinated barley rootlets and to reduce the levels of nitrogen. In strong concentrations potassium bromate can cause nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and even convulsions.
BLOOD LEVEL The bromine content of the blood is essentially higher than the iodine content. It is thought that the bromine content of the blood has significance in the human organism for psychic functions. In manic-depressive disorder the bromine blood level lies 40-60% under the normal, although only in the endogenous and not in the reactive forms. The bromine blood level is also much lower during the menopause and in many patients with schizophrenia. Supported by a good deal of indirect evidence, the theory has been proposed that schizophrenia is associated with the neurotransmitter dopamine. "The best evidence comes from pharmacological observations in man and experimental animals. Amphetamine releases dopamine in the brain, and can produce in man a behavioural syndrome indistinguishable from an acute schizophrenic episode - very familiar to doctors who treat drug-users. In animals dopamine release causes a specific pattern of stereotyped behaviour, which resembles the repetitive behaviours often seen in schizophrenic patients. Potent dopamine[2]-receptors agonists [e.g. apomorphine and bromocriptine] produce similar effects in animals, and these drugs, like amphetamine, exacerbate the symptoms of schizophrenic patients."7 [Many antipsychotic drugs block dopamine[2]-receptors.] [See below for bromocriptine.]
CHLORINE Storage and excretion of bromine are particularly dependent upon the chlorine intake, particularly in the form of sodium chloride. The less chlorine taken in, the more bromine stored; the greater the ingestion of chlorine, the greater the excretion of bromine. Bromine substitutes chlorine because with the introduction of bromine a loss of salt occurs. The chlorine in the gastric juice is also substituted by bromine. Continuous therapeutic use of bromine displaces about one-third of the chlorine in the blood. In addition, bromine seems to collect where chlorine is found in greatest amounts, the lungs and the blood. Bromine excretion can be increased by excessive intake of salt; hence salt will antidote the manifestation of bromine poisoning. Since the anterior lobe of the hypophysis contains comparatively large amounts of bromine, the hypophysis is the absorption and regulation organ for bromine, in a similar way as the thyroid is for iodine. 8 During sleep the bromine level of the hypophysis drops significantly, while that of the cerebellum markedly rises. Subnormal secretion of the hypophysis [pituitary gland] results in general sluggishness, apathy, discouragement, and quick loss of self-control. The general effect of supernormal secretion is excessive nervous and mental activity, as well as aggressiveness tending toward domination and imperiousness.
HYPOPHYSIS "According to Gray, the anterior lobe [of the hypophysis] 'is developed from the ectoderm of the buccal cavity, and resembles to a considerable extent, in microscopic structure, the thyroid body.' ... Among the blessings bestowed by a healthy pituitary are good blood pressure, healthy sex tone, initiative, zest for study, work, sustained interest in occupation, and endurance of youth. ... The pituitary, which has been called the gland of persistent effort, was apparently known to the initiated priests of antiquity, who associated it with the feminine aspect in symbolism. It stood as the yoni in its relationship to the pineal gland, which was the primitive phallus. ... The pituitary body is the 'barometer' of the whole ductless gland chain, the first to reveal disorder in the endocrine system. In the Egyptian Mysteries, the pituitary body was the initiator, for it 'raised the candidate' - the pineal gland. In certain East Indian metaphysical systems the pituitary body is called manas-antaskarana, 'the bridge of mind.' When stimulated by the disciplines of occult philosophy, the pituitary body begins to glow with a faint roseate hue. ... At last tingeing the form of the gland itself with a golden red light, it gently coaxes the pineal gland into animation."9
BROMOCRIPTINE The connection between bromine and the hypophysis seems to be confirmed by the use of the drug bromocriptine in orthodox medicine. Bromocriptine is a compound of bromine and ergot that acts on the adenohypophysis, particularly on its secretion of the hormones prolactin and somatotropin [growth hormone]. Its clinical use includes the suppression of excessive production of growth hormone, leading to gigantism in children and to acromegaly in adults, and the prevention of lactation ["without causing pain or engorgement of the breasts"] as well as the suppression of established lactation. It suppresses prolactin release by inhibiting dopamine. "The main function of prolactin in females is the control of milk production; one can only speculate as to what its function is in males. At parturition, when the blood level of oestrogen falls, the prolactin concentration rises and lactation is initiated. Maintenance of lactation depends on suckling, which stimulates a reflex secretion of prolactin by neural pathways, causing a 10- to 100-fold increase within 30 minutes. Prolactin, along with other hormones, is responsible for the proliferation and differentiation of mammary tissue during pregnancy. It inhibits gonadotrophin release and/or the response of the ovaries to these trophic hormones. ... According to one rather appealing hypothesis, the high post-delivery concentration of prolactin reflects its biological function of 'parental' hormone. Certainly broodiness and nest-building activity can be induced in birds by prolactin injections, and equivalent 'parental' behaviour can be induced in mice and rabbits. ... Prolactin itself is not used clinically; in the context of prolactin physiology, the main clinical need is to decrease its secretion, and the agent used for this purpose is bromocriptine."10 Unwanted reactions to bromocriptine include nausea and vomiting, dizziness, constipation, and postural hypotension. Another side-effect, but perhaps not unwanted, is increased receptiveness for sexual stimulation and, reportedly, better controlled and more powerful orgasms. The latter may be accompanied by a histamine reaction which is more clearly felt, in the form of a stuffed nose. The drug produces these effects by lowering prolactin levels, which, when high, are associated with a decreased sex drive. Interestingly, the repertory lists Brom. under Female genitalia, Coition, enjoyment absent, as well as under Orgasm, delayed, and Orgasm, wanting. Under Male genitalia, Brom. is mentioned for Ejaculation too quick. [See Secale.]
PROVINGS •• [1] Lembke - 7 provings on himself; method: single doses of 4-15 drops of bromium 1, with observation periods ranging from 1 to 7 days; also single doses of 10-15 drops of bromium 3.
•• [2] Hering - experiments on himself, his wife, and others [Husemann and Lippe], c. 1844; method: vapour, 1st dil., 3rd dil., 5th dil., and 6th dil., manner not stated.
[1] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. [2] Mervyn, Vitamins and Minerals. [3] Julien, A Primer of Drug Action. [4-5] Blumgarten, Materia Medica for Nurses. [6] Leeser, Textbook of Hom. MM; Inorganic Medicinal Substances. [7] Rang et al, Pharmacology. [8] Leeser, ibid. [9] Hall, Man, the Grand Symbol of the Mysteries. [10] Rang et al, ibid.
Affinity
LARYNX. RESPIRATORY TRACT. Heart. Circulation. Glands [parotid; thyroid; ovaries; mammae]. * Left side. Left to right. Right side.
Modalities
Worse: WARM [DAMPNESS; overheating; room; heat of sun]. Chilled while hot. Sea bathing. Dust. Drafts. Evening till midnight. After eating, after acids. Tobacco smoke. Cold air. Entering a warm room [= cough].
Better: Nosebleed [> vertigo, head, chest]. Seashore. Violent motion. Riding on horseback.
Main symptoms
M Delusions: someone is behind him, of another person in the room, of strangers looking over his shoulder.
• "In the evening when alone it seems as though he was obliged to look about him, and would somewhere see an apparition." [Allen]
M Changeable.
• "At times there is cheerfulness with a desire for mental activity, or the subject is depressed, fatigued and unable to tackle a job. The general weakness induces a state of indifference, sadness, boredom and lack of any interest in household affairs." [Gibson]
• "Fear when alone at home in the evening, stays up until his parents come back, even if it's until 5 o'clock in the morning. Holds his feet on the chair because he has the idea something under the chair might grasp him. During these evenings he watches horror-movies which frighten him intensely, but he is obsessed by them and cannot stop watching them. He needs the sensation of it. Sometimes he has the feeling that someone is behind him and is tapping him on the shoulder. Fear of the unknown, i.e. 'the absolute nothing, the black hole'. He fears losing loved ones. When this occurs in his life, he becomes depressive: sits still alone upstairs for days, without eating and drinking, inconsolable, staring. When he recovers from this after some days, he relapses from hearing a sentimental song. At other times he has intense remorse and guilt feelings about having wounded the feelings of others. When be becomes angry and his first warning is neglected, he becomes violent and strikes the other."1
G Blondes with light blue eyes, fair fine hair, red cheeks and pink delicate skin; young persons.
• "The physical appearance in Bromium subjects varies. In general the type is lean, pale with delicate skin, very light hair and eyebrows, and blue eyes. But the appearance may be plethoric with red face, easy flushing and a tendency to become easily overheated." [Gibson]
G Persons allergic to DUST.
Dust = irritation of nose and larynx, sneezing, nasal catarrh, hoarseness.
G WARM-BLOODED persons; complaints after being overheated.
G Weak and easily OVERHEATED, then sweaty and sensitive to drafts. Summer colds.
• "The reactions to heat and cold are curious. Icy cold limbs are present with a hot head. If chilled when overheated, the least draught seems to 'freeze him to the bone'. At the same time any overheating, esp. indoors, induces great discomfort." [Gibson]
c Catching cold after overheating [and sweating] may lead to:
[Excoriating] coryza; headache; diarrhoea; laryngitis / hoarseness; abdominal colic; joint pains.
G SEASHORE > or <. G Pains pressing or stitching. G Alternating / changing sides. Pain in forehead [frontal bone]; left then right. Pressing earache; left then right. Itching inside nose; left then right. Obstruction of nose; right then left. Heat of face; right then left. Stitches in hypochondria; right then left. Pains in chest; left then right. Paralytic sensation in shoulders; left then right. Watery discharge # obstinate dryness of nose. G Stony HARDNESS of GLANDS; induration. G COLDS start in larynx [bronchi or trachea], GO UPWARD [Merc., Sep.] and downward. G LEFT-SIDED affections of throat, larynx, glands, testicles and ovaries. G Vertigo when crossing running water. • "Vertigo as soon as he steps the foot over water; the foot is drawn involuntarily in the direction of the stream." [In a strong young man who was not otherwise nervous.] [Allen] Vertigo < damp weather. Vertigo and nausea. Vertigo with tendency to fall backward. Vertigo and nosebleed, followed by headache. P Inhaled air seems smoky, dusty, cold or raw. P Gastric ulcer. • "The type of case in which you get indications for Brom. is that where you have suspicious ulceration in the stomach. You usually get a history of pain coming on immediately after food, and very often of definite coffee-ground vomit. As a rule, these gastric pains are worse during the latter part of the day, and worse at night. There are various gastric, or appetite, symptoms which are helpful in the selection of Brom. for these patients. For instance, they often have an acute desire for acids, and yet they have a very marked aggravation of their pain, or discomfort, from taking acid foods; and the taking of acids will not infrequently produce a sudden violent diarrhoea, or an acute gastric irritation which sets up a very irritating cough. ... Another point that sometimes helps you to your Bromium diagnosis is that these patients have an undue susceptibility to tobacco. They often say that smoking will produce gastric pain almost immediately; even sitting in a room where people are smoking is often enough to upset them. ... They also get a marked aggravation from hot foods or hot drinks. These increase their discomfort or pain, make them feel sick, and may actually make them vomit; and yet they have a strong dislike for cold things. Bromium patients get a sensation of hunger - an empty feeling in their stomachs - which is relieved by taking food, although their actual pain is aggravated. So you very often get an apparent contradiction."2 P Spasmodic, dry, croupy cough, < evening till midnight. Suffocative, sudden, without expectoration [reverse of Ip.]. < Deep inspiration ["as breathing through a sponge"]. < Entering warm room. After being overheated during the day. [1] Jansen, Two Bromium Cases, HL 3/94. [2] Borland, Digestive Drugs; Homoeopathy, May 1961. Rubrics Mind Desires activity [2]. Desire to be carried in croup [1], fast [1]. Confusion at night when waking from a dream, > putting feet on cold floor [1/1*]. Delusions, as if all kinds of things jumped up on the ground before her [1]. Fear of dark [1], of ghosts [1]. Hysteria from suppression of sexual excitement [1]. Somnambulism [1*]. Thoughtless staring [1].
Vertigo
During menses [1]. From smoking [1]. In sunlight and heat [1].
Head
Heaviness > darkness [1/1]; in forehead and occiput from heat of sun [2/1], > when in shade [1/1*]. Pain, pressing in forehead in a small spot above the eyes, alternating sides [1/1*]. Must keep the forehead wrinkled [1/1*], from heaviness or pain in forehead [1/1].
Eye
Sensation as if eyes would fall out when stooping [1].
Vision
Lost, vanishing of sight when sitting and reading in the evening, as if a wind before the eyes took away the power of sight [1/1*].
Ear
Noises, during headache [1*].
Nose
Coldness [objectively and subjectively] of nose on waking at night [1/1*]. Obstinate dryness alternating with watery discharge [1*].
Throat
Choking and lachrymation [1/1*]. Pain, on bending forwards [1], when touched [1], when turning the head [1].
Stomach
Appetite wanting during menses [1]. Nausea after palpitation [1]. Pain > coffee [1], > after eating [2], after oysters [1].
Abdomen
Pain in umbilical region < drawing in abdomen [1/1*]. Rectum Diarrhoea after acids [2], > coffee [1], > eating [2], after oysters [2], < smoking [1]. Male Sexual desire wanting, and coldness of scrotum [1]. Female Coition, enjoyment absent [2]. Insensibility of vagina during coition [1]. Swollen ovaries before menses [1/1]. Larynx Voice, hoarseness < dust [1/1], from being overheated [2], painful [2]. Respiration Difficult before menses [1], during palpitation [1], > walking rapidly [1*; Sep.], with yawning [1/1*].
Chest
Constriction, > epistaxis [1*]. Pain,< bending forward [1], < turning thorax [1*]; pectoral muscles, right side, < lifting anything with right hand [1*]; heart, extending to axilla [1]. Sensation as if there were smoke in chest [1]. Limbs Sensation of constriction, as if in a vise, in forearms [1/1]. Feeling of heaviness in thighs before menses [1]. Restlessness upper limbs [1]. Sleep Unrefreshing, rising in morning almost impossible [2*]. Yawning, provoked by inspiration [1*]. Dreams Ascending []1. Climbing [1]. Coffins [1]. Physical exertion [1]. Journeys [1]. * Repertory additions [Allen / Hughes]. Food Aversion: [1]: Onions; sweets; water. Desire: [2]: Acids. [1]: Chocolate; oysters. Worse: [2]: Milk; oysters. [1]: Acids; chocolate; cold food; onions; smoking [= severe pinching pains in abdomen]; warm food. Better: [1]: Coffee; cold food; wine.
Brom.
.jpg) |
| Bromium |
[Samuel Wyllis Bandler]
Signs
Bromine.
CLASSIFICATION Bromine is a member of the halogen group of elements [group 17 of the periodic table, formerly group VIIa], along with fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and astatine. It is obtained from natural brines from wells in Michigan and Arkansas. Little bromine is extracted today from seawater, which contains only about 85 ppm. The element was discovered in 1826 by Antoine Balard.
PROPERTIES Bromine is the only liquid non-metallic element. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, volatilising readily at room temperature to a red vapour with a disagreeable suffocating odour [its name comes from Gr. bromos, stench]. It has a very irritating effect on the eyes and throat. Bromine is less active than chlorine but more so than iodine. It unites readily with many elements and has a bleaching action. Produces painful sores when spilled on the skin.
USES Bromine is used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizers, and inorganic bromides for photography. 1 Large quantities are used to make 1,2-dibromoethane [ethylene dibromide] as a gasoline additive. This compound removes lead additives after the combustion of gasoline, preventing the lead in these additives from forming deposits in the engine. Instead, the lead combines with the bromine to form lead bromide, a volatile gas, which leaves the engine through the exhaust system. Among the halogens bromine is the only element which is a fluid under ordinary circumstances; chlorine is a yellow-green gas, iodine a bluish-black solid, fluorine a pale yellow gas, and astatine an artificially obtained, radioactive solid. Bromine corrodes all metals, with the exception of platina, nickel and lead.
EFFECTS Overexposure to bromine vapours may lead to dizziness, headache, lachrymation, epistaxis, coughing, oppression of chest, pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and measle-like eruptions.
 |
| Bromium |
PHYSIOLOGY "Although bromine is one of the most abundant and widespread of the recognized trace elements it has not been conclusively shown to perform any essential function in plants, micro-organisms or animals. However, it can replace chloride to support growth of some algae and in chicks it can partially replace chloride. Bromine at trace mineral levels can cause a small significant growth response in chicks and mice fed excessive iodine to produce growth retardation. However, diets deficient in bromine did not cause any reduction of growth in animals and adding bromine later to such diets did not give rise to increased growth rates. Low blood serum concentrations of bromide in patients receiving haemodialysis have been reported and these levels have been associated with insomnia in these patients. In a double blind trial on haemodialysis patients, quality of sleep improved markedly in those given bromide but not in those receiving chloride. All animal tissues contain between 50 and 100 times more bromine than iodine except in the thyroid where the reverse is true. The bromine levels of soft tissues are affected by illness: e.g. they are elevated in heart disease induced by damage or by uraemia."2
MEDICINE Medicinal bromine compounds fall in a wide variety of therapeutic categories: analgesic; anti-inflammatory; expectorant [e.g. Bisolvon]; anticoagulant; sedative, hypnotic; antiparkinsonian; antihistaminic; anthelmintic; antitussive; antiemetic; antipsychotic [Bromperidol, the bromine analogue of haloperidol]; vasodilator. Other compounds are in use as herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, and insecticides. Two bromine compounds are developed to serve as chemical war gas.
BROMIDES Bromides, mainly potassium bromide and sodium bromide, has been prescribed for decennia as sedatives, soporifics, and anticonvulsants. The use as anticonvulsants originates from Sir Charles Locock, the physician to Queen Victoria, who, in 1857, argued that most cases of epilepsy were due to masturbation, and since high doses of bromide were believed to reduce sexual activity, Locock used it successfully to treat several patients. Bromides have now been largely replaced by drugs with less side-effects. Large doses of the bromides can cause central nervous system depression and mental deterioration. Chronic bromide intoxication - called bromism - is characterized by violent delirium [occasionally], psychotic behaviour, confusion, drowsiness, headache, acneform eruption, seborrhoea, slurred speech, cardiac depression, foul breath, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, gastric pains, and muscular weakness [ataxia; paralysis]. The treatment of chronic bromism is reported to be easy: "table salt [sodium chloride] is administered in large quantities, and the salt helps the urinary excretion of bromide, which is replaced in the body by chloride as a normal consequence of kidney function."3 According to Leeser, bromine represents the high point in the narcotic effect of the halogen series. Blumgarten describes the action of bromides thus: "About 15 to 20 minutes after an average dose of one of the bromides is taken, the patient complains of dull headache, he feels tired and weak, and does not care to exert himself, either mentally or physically. When he moves about, the movements are slow and languid. He perceives objects about him, though not as clearly as usual, but he manifests no interest in them. He speaks slowly and hesitatingly, in a monotonous tone of voice. He does not express his thoughts clearly; these are slow and confused, and his reasoning and memory are poor. Very often the patient becomes drowsy. The pulse is somewhat slower and weaker, and the breathing is somewhat slower. If the patient is nervous and excitable, he becomes calm and quiet. If he has tremors or convulsions, these are lessened or prevented from recurring. ... The bromides lessen the activity of the spinal cord. The reflex action of the body is therefore lessened. The patient does not then respond readily to external stimuli applied to the skin or mucous membranes. For example, when the conjunctiva of the eye is touched, winking results very slowly. When the pharynx is touched, vomiting is not produced so easily. The bromides also lessen the sexual reflexes. 4
BROMISM The symptoms of bromism may appear gradually or suddenly. The following symptoms are characteristic:"[1] Skin eruptions [due to the excretion of the drug through the skin]. These consist principally of groups of pimples on the face [acne]; frequently small abscesses form in the skin. At other times, there are reddish spots scattered over the skin, and the skin may be very pale. [2] Loss of appetite, salty taste in the mouth, bad breath and disturbed digestion. [3] Constipation. [4] Drowsiness. [5] Stupid, dull expression on the face. [6] Depressed spirits, even melancholia. [7] The eyes look heavy and dull. [8] The patient manifests no interest in his surroundings. [9] Slow, uncertain gait. [10] Slow, stammering speech, often words are forgotten and mispronounced. [11] Very poor memory, even recent events are forgotten. [12] Slow pulse. [13] Lessened reflexes [touching the conjunctiva of the eye does not cause winking, etc.]."5
EXPERIMENTS "That the depression of the brain centres is not the sole phase of bromide action is perhaps most clearly shown by the self-investigation of Schabelitz using sodium bromide in large doses. The trial continued over a two-month period. Very soon, after five grams, appeared an irritable frame of mind, a type of intoxication, with some confusion and uncertain gait. With continuous introduction of bromine great desire for undertaking work and a cheerful frame of mind alternating with lassitude and ill-humour. On the seventh day of taking bromides the variation in disposition ceased and an euphoric frame of mind remained. To inattentiveness and forgetfulness there were added joking, the urge to speak, pugnacity, unrestrained and non-critical attitude, a submanic state with many light and colour manifestations, auditory delusions, disturbances of speech and language, cramp from writing, disturbance of convergence, ear noises, disturbances of equilibrium, mislaying of objects, inattention to clothing. Recollections from youth are very animated, while recent impressions are unrecalled. 'As epileptics tend to do, I could not simply name a picture but had to form a judgement about it. The disposition was rosy, I made the most beautiful plans for the future and was irritated if anyone contradicted me.' On the twentieth day of bromides there appeared a striking motor unrest. With the cessation of bromides and the addition of salt the disposition changed like a flash. Two days after the discontinuance of the bromides, there suddenly appeared marked delusions in the sense of reality on the basis of a marked feeling of inferiority.""6
BROMATES Bromates [salts of bromic acid] are used in permanent wave neutralizers. Potassium bromate is used as a maturing agent and conditioner in bread. It effects the nitrogenous parts [gluten] in the wheat flour by helping the proteins to retain the carbon dioxide gas generated by the yeast during fermentation. The result is a softer, lighter loaf. It is added to the wort in beer making to reduce excess losses of carbohydrate from the germinated barley rootlets and to reduce the levels of nitrogen. In strong concentrations potassium bromate can cause nausea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and even convulsions.
BLOOD LEVEL The bromine content of the blood is essentially higher than the iodine content. It is thought that the bromine content of the blood has significance in the human organism for psychic functions. In manic-depressive disorder the bromine blood level lies 40-60% under the normal, although only in the endogenous and not in the reactive forms. The bromine blood level is also much lower during the menopause and in many patients with schizophrenia. Supported by a good deal of indirect evidence, the theory has been proposed that schizophrenia is associated with the neurotransmitter dopamine. "The best evidence comes from pharmacological observations in man and experimental animals. Amphetamine releases dopamine in the brain, and can produce in man a behavioural syndrome indistinguishable from an acute schizophrenic episode - very familiar to doctors who treat drug-users. In animals dopamine release causes a specific pattern of stereotyped behaviour, which resembles the repetitive behaviours often seen in schizophrenic patients. Potent dopamine[2]-receptors agonists [e.g. apomorphine and bromocriptine] produce similar effects in animals, and these drugs, like amphetamine, exacerbate the symptoms of schizophrenic patients."7 [Many antipsychotic drugs block dopamine[2]-receptors.] [See below for bromocriptine.]
CHLORINE Storage and excretion of bromine are particularly dependent upon the chlorine intake, particularly in the form of sodium chloride. The less chlorine taken in, the more bromine stored; the greater the ingestion of chlorine, the greater the excretion of bromine. Bromine substitutes chlorine because with the introduction of bromine a loss of salt occurs. The chlorine in the gastric juice is also substituted by bromine. Continuous therapeutic use of bromine displaces about one-third of the chlorine in the blood. In addition, bromine seems to collect where chlorine is found in greatest amounts, the lungs and the blood. Bromine excretion can be increased by excessive intake of salt; hence salt will antidote the manifestation of bromine poisoning. Since the anterior lobe of the hypophysis contains comparatively large amounts of bromine, the hypophysis is the absorption and regulation organ for bromine, in a similar way as the thyroid is for iodine. 8 During sleep the bromine level of the hypophysis drops significantly, while that of the cerebellum markedly rises. Subnormal secretion of the hypophysis [pituitary gland] results in general sluggishness, apathy, discouragement, and quick loss of self-control. The general effect of supernormal secretion is excessive nervous and mental activity, as well as aggressiveness tending toward domination and imperiousness.
HYPOPHYSIS "According to Gray, the anterior lobe [of the hypophysis] 'is developed from the ectoderm of the buccal cavity, and resembles to a considerable extent, in microscopic structure, the thyroid body.' ... Among the blessings bestowed by a healthy pituitary are good blood pressure, healthy sex tone, initiative, zest for study, work, sustained interest in occupation, and endurance of youth. ... The pituitary, which has been called the gland of persistent effort, was apparently known to the initiated priests of antiquity, who associated it with the feminine aspect in symbolism. It stood as the yoni in its relationship to the pineal gland, which was the primitive phallus. ... The pituitary body is the 'barometer' of the whole ductless gland chain, the first to reveal disorder in the endocrine system. In the Egyptian Mysteries, the pituitary body was the initiator, for it 'raised the candidate' - the pineal gland. In certain East Indian metaphysical systems the pituitary body is called manas-antaskarana, 'the bridge of mind.' When stimulated by the disciplines of occult philosophy, the pituitary body begins to glow with a faint roseate hue. ... At last tingeing the form of the gland itself with a golden red light, it gently coaxes the pineal gland into animation."9
BROMOCRIPTINE The connection between bromine and the hypophysis seems to be confirmed by the use of the drug bromocriptine in orthodox medicine. Bromocriptine is a compound of bromine and ergot that acts on the adenohypophysis, particularly on its secretion of the hormones prolactin and somatotropin [growth hormone]. Its clinical use includes the suppression of excessive production of growth hormone, leading to gigantism in children and to acromegaly in adults, and the prevention of lactation ["without causing pain or engorgement of the breasts"] as well as the suppression of established lactation. It suppresses prolactin release by inhibiting dopamine. "The main function of prolactin in females is the control of milk production; one can only speculate as to what its function is in males. At parturition, when the blood level of oestrogen falls, the prolactin concentration rises and lactation is initiated. Maintenance of lactation depends on suckling, which stimulates a reflex secretion of prolactin by neural pathways, causing a 10- to 100-fold increase within 30 minutes. Prolactin, along with other hormones, is responsible for the proliferation and differentiation of mammary tissue during pregnancy. It inhibits gonadotrophin release and/or the response of the ovaries to these trophic hormones. ... According to one rather appealing hypothesis, the high post-delivery concentration of prolactin reflects its biological function of 'parental' hormone. Certainly broodiness and nest-building activity can be induced in birds by prolactin injections, and equivalent 'parental' behaviour can be induced in mice and rabbits. ... Prolactin itself is not used clinically; in the context of prolactin physiology, the main clinical need is to decrease its secretion, and the agent used for this purpose is bromocriptine."10 Unwanted reactions to bromocriptine include nausea and vomiting, dizziness, constipation, and postural hypotension. Another side-effect, but perhaps not unwanted, is increased receptiveness for sexual stimulation and, reportedly, better controlled and more powerful orgasms. The latter may be accompanied by a histamine reaction which is more clearly felt, in the form of a stuffed nose. The drug produces these effects by lowering prolactin levels, which, when high, are associated with a decreased sex drive. Interestingly, the repertory lists Brom. under Female genitalia, Coition, enjoyment absent, as well as under Orgasm, delayed, and Orgasm, wanting. Under Male genitalia, Brom. is mentioned for Ejaculation too quick. [See Secale.]
PROVINGS •• [1] Lembke - 7 provings on himself; method: single doses of 4-15 drops of bromium 1, with observation periods ranging from 1 to 7 days; also single doses of 10-15 drops of bromium 3.
•• [2] Hering - experiments on himself, his wife, and others [Husemann and Lippe], c. 1844; method: vapour, 1st dil., 3rd dil., 5th dil., and 6th dil., manner not stated.
[1] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. [2] Mervyn, Vitamins and Minerals. [3] Julien, A Primer of Drug Action. [4-5] Blumgarten, Materia Medica for Nurses. [6] Leeser, Textbook of Hom. MM; Inorganic Medicinal Substances. [7] Rang et al, Pharmacology. [8] Leeser, ibid. [9] Hall, Man, the Grand Symbol of the Mysteries. [10] Rang et al, ibid.
Affinity
LARYNX. RESPIRATORY TRACT. Heart. Circulation. Glands [parotid; thyroid; ovaries; mammae]. * Left side. Left to right. Right side.
Modalities
Worse: WARM [DAMPNESS; overheating; room; heat of sun]. Chilled while hot. Sea bathing. Dust. Drafts. Evening till midnight. After eating, after acids. Tobacco smoke. Cold air. Entering a warm room [= cough].
Better: Nosebleed [> vertigo, head, chest]. Seashore. Violent motion. Riding on horseback.
Main symptoms
M Delusions: someone is behind him, of another person in the room, of strangers looking over his shoulder.
• "In the evening when alone it seems as though he was obliged to look about him, and would somewhere see an apparition." [Allen]
M Changeable.
• "At times there is cheerfulness with a desire for mental activity, or the subject is depressed, fatigued and unable to tackle a job. The general weakness induces a state of indifference, sadness, boredom and lack of any interest in household affairs." [Gibson]
• "Fear when alone at home in the evening, stays up until his parents come back, even if it's until 5 o'clock in the morning. Holds his feet on the chair because he has the idea something under the chair might grasp him. During these evenings he watches horror-movies which frighten him intensely, but he is obsessed by them and cannot stop watching them. He needs the sensation of it. Sometimes he has the feeling that someone is behind him and is tapping him on the shoulder. Fear of the unknown, i.e. 'the absolute nothing, the black hole'. He fears losing loved ones. When this occurs in his life, he becomes depressive: sits still alone upstairs for days, without eating and drinking, inconsolable, staring. When he recovers from this after some days, he relapses from hearing a sentimental song. At other times he has intense remorse and guilt feelings about having wounded the feelings of others. When be becomes angry and his first warning is neglected, he becomes violent and strikes the other."1
G Blondes with light blue eyes, fair fine hair, red cheeks and pink delicate skin; young persons.
• "The physical appearance in Bromium subjects varies. In general the type is lean, pale with delicate skin, very light hair and eyebrows, and blue eyes. But the appearance may be plethoric with red face, easy flushing and a tendency to become easily overheated." [Gibson]
G Persons allergic to DUST.
Dust = irritation of nose and larynx, sneezing, nasal catarrh, hoarseness.
G WARM-BLOODED persons; complaints after being overheated.
G Weak and easily OVERHEATED, then sweaty and sensitive to drafts. Summer colds.
• "The reactions to heat and cold are curious. Icy cold limbs are present with a hot head. If chilled when overheated, the least draught seems to 'freeze him to the bone'. At the same time any overheating, esp. indoors, induces great discomfort." [Gibson]
c Catching cold after overheating [and sweating] may lead to:
[Excoriating] coryza; headache; diarrhoea; laryngitis / hoarseness; abdominal colic; joint pains.
G SEASHORE > or <. G Pains pressing or stitching. G Alternating / changing sides. Pain in forehead [frontal bone]; left then right. Pressing earache; left then right. Itching inside nose; left then right. Obstruction of nose; right then left. Heat of face; right then left. Stitches in hypochondria; right then left. Pains in chest; left then right. Paralytic sensation in shoulders; left then right. Watery discharge # obstinate dryness of nose. G Stony HARDNESS of GLANDS; induration. G COLDS start in larynx [bronchi or trachea], GO UPWARD [Merc., Sep.] and downward. G LEFT-SIDED affections of throat, larynx, glands, testicles and ovaries. G Vertigo when crossing running water. • "Vertigo as soon as he steps the foot over water; the foot is drawn involuntarily in the direction of the stream." [In a strong young man who was not otherwise nervous.] [Allen] Vertigo < damp weather. Vertigo and nausea. Vertigo with tendency to fall backward. Vertigo and nosebleed, followed by headache. P Inhaled air seems smoky, dusty, cold or raw. P Gastric ulcer. • "The type of case in which you get indications for Brom. is that where you have suspicious ulceration in the stomach. You usually get a history of pain coming on immediately after food, and very often of definite coffee-ground vomit. As a rule, these gastric pains are worse during the latter part of the day, and worse at night. There are various gastric, or appetite, symptoms which are helpful in the selection of Brom. for these patients. For instance, they often have an acute desire for acids, and yet they have a very marked aggravation of their pain, or discomfort, from taking acid foods; and the taking of acids will not infrequently produce a sudden violent diarrhoea, or an acute gastric irritation which sets up a very irritating cough. ... Another point that sometimes helps you to your Bromium diagnosis is that these patients have an undue susceptibility to tobacco. They often say that smoking will produce gastric pain almost immediately; even sitting in a room where people are smoking is often enough to upset them. ... They also get a marked aggravation from hot foods or hot drinks. These increase their discomfort or pain, make them feel sick, and may actually make them vomit; and yet they have a strong dislike for cold things. Bromium patients get a sensation of hunger - an empty feeling in their stomachs - which is relieved by taking food, although their actual pain is aggravated. So you very often get an apparent contradiction."2 P Spasmodic, dry, croupy cough, < evening till midnight. Suffocative, sudden, without expectoration [reverse of Ip.]. < Deep inspiration ["as breathing through a sponge"]. < Entering warm room. After being overheated during the day. [1] Jansen, Two Bromium Cases, HL 3/94. [2] Borland, Digestive Drugs; Homoeopathy, May 1961. Rubrics Mind Desires activity [2]. Desire to be carried in croup [1], fast [1]. Confusion at night when waking from a dream, > putting feet on cold floor [1/1*]. Delusions, as if all kinds of things jumped up on the ground before her [1]. Fear of dark [1], of ghosts [1]. Hysteria from suppression of sexual excitement [1]. Somnambulism [1*]. Thoughtless staring [1].
Vertigo
During menses [1]. From smoking [1]. In sunlight and heat [1].
Head
Heaviness > darkness [1/1]; in forehead and occiput from heat of sun [2/1], > when in shade [1/1*]. Pain, pressing in forehead in a small spot above the eyes, alternating sides [1/1*]. Must keep the forehead wrinkled [1/1*], from heaviness or pain in forehead [1/1].
Eye
Sensation as if eyes would fall out when stooping [1].
Vision
Lost, vanishing of sight when sitting and reading in the evening, as if a wind before the eyes took away the power of sight [1/1*].
Ear
Noises, during headache [1*].
Nose
Coldness [objectively and subjectively] of nose on waking at night [1/1*]. Obstinate dryness alternating with watery discharge [1*].
Throat
Choking and lachrymation [1/1*]. Pain, on bending forwards [1], when touched [1], when turning the head [1].
Stomach
Appetite wanting during menses [1]. Nausea after palpitation [1]. Pain > coffee [1], > after eating [2], after oysters [1].
Abdomen
Pain in umbilical region < drawing in abdomen [1/1*]. Rectum Diarrhoea after acids [2], > coffee [1], > eating [2], after oysters [2], < smoking [1]. Male Sexual desire wanting, and coldness of scrotum [1]. Female Coition, enjoyment absent [2]. Insensibility of vagina during coition [1]. Swollen ovaries before menses [1/1]. Larynx Voice, hoarseness < dust [1/1], from being overheated [2], painful [2]. Respiration Difficult before menses [1], during palpitation [1], > walking rapidly [1*; Sep.], with yawning [1/1*].
Chest
Constriction, > epistaxis [1*]. Pain,< bending forward [1], < turning thorax [1*]; pectoral muscles, right side, < lifting anything with right hand [1*]; heart, extending to axilla [1]. Sensation as if there were smoke in chest [1]. Limbs Sensation of constriction, as if in a vise, in forearms [1/1]. Feeling of heaviness in thighs before menses [1]. Restlessness upper limbs [1]. Sleep Unrefreshing, rising in morning almost impossible [2*]. Yawning, provoked by inspiration [1*]. Dreams Ascending []1. Climbing [1]. Coffins [1]. Physical exertion [1]. Journeys [1]. * Repertory additions [Allen / Hughes]. Food Aversion: [1]: Onions; sweets; water. Desire: [2]: Acids. [1]: Chocolate; oysters. Worse: [2]: Milk; oysters. [1]: Acids; chocolate; cold food; onions; smoking [= severe pinching pains in abdomen]; warm food. Better: [1]: Coffee; cold food; wine.
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